CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) Questions and Answers

The component of the Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) specification that contains the data required to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities identified by automated vulnerability assessments is the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS). CVSS is a framework that provides a standardized and objective way to measure and communicate the characteristics and impacts of vulnerabilities. CVSS consists of three metric groups: base, temporal, and environmental. The base metric group captures the intrinsic and fundamental properties of a vulnerability that are constant over time and across user environments. The temporal metric group captures the characteristics of a vulnerability that change over time, such as the availability and effectiveness of exploits, patches, and workarounds. The environmental metric group captures the characteristics of a vulnerability that are relevant and unique to a user’s environment, such as the configuration and importance of the affected system. Each metric group has a set of metrics that are assigned values based on the vulnerability’s attributes. The values are then combined using a formula to produce a numerical score that ranges from 0 to 10, where 0 means no impact and 10 means critical impact. The score can also be translated into a qualitative rating that ranges from none to low, medium, high, and critical. CVSS provides a consistent and comprehensive way to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities and prioritize their remediation.

The other options are not components of the SCAP specification that contain the data required to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities identified by automated vulnerability assessments, but rather components that serve other purposes. Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) is a component that provides a standardized and unique identifier and description for each publicly known vulnerability. CVE facilitates the sharing and comparison of vulnerability information across different sources and tools. Asset Reporting Format (ARF) is a component that provides a standardized and extensible format for expressing the information about the assets and their characteristics, such as configuration, vulnerabilities, and compliance. ARF enables the aggregation and correlation of asset information from different sources and tools. Open Vulnerability and Assessment Language (OVAL) is a component that provides a standardized and expressive language for defining and testing the state of a system for the presence of vulnerabilities, configuration issues, patches, and other aspects. OVAL enables the automation and interoperability of vulnerability assessment and management.

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). SSL is a protocol that provides secure communication over the Internet by using public key cryptography and digital certificates. SSL works as follows:

The client initiates a connection to the server and requests its digital certificate, which contains its public key and identity information.

The server sends its digital certificate to the client, and optionally requests the client’s digital certificate as well.

The client verifies the server’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), and optionally sends its own digital certificate to the server.

The server verifies the client’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, if applicable.

The client and the server use the Diffie-Hellman algorithm to generate a shared secret key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt the data exchanged between them.

The client and the server use the shared secret key and a symmetric encryption algorithm, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), to establish a secure session and communicate confidentially and reliably.

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of SSL because it enables the authentication of the parties, the establishment of the shared secret key, and the protection of the data from eavesdropping, tampering, and replay attacks.

The other options are not protocols or algorithms that use private and public encryption keys in their implementation. Diffie-Hellman algorithm is a method for generating a shared secret key between two parties, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather public and private parameters. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric encryption algorithm that uses the same key for encryption and decryption, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a single secret key. Message Digest 5 (MD5) is a hash function that produces a fixed-length output from a variable-length input, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a one-way mathematical function.

According to the CISSP For Dummies4, the best method to reduce the effectiveness of phishing attacks is user awareness. This means that the users should be educated and trained on how to recognize and avoid phishing emails and websites, which are fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information or credentials from the users by impersonating legitimate entities or persons. User awareness can help users to identify the common signs and indicators of phishing, such as spoofed sender addresses, misleading links, spelling and grammar errors, urgent or threatening messages, and requests for personal or financial information. User awareness can also help users to follow the best practices and preventive measures to protect themselves from phishing, such as verifying the source and content of the messages, using strong and unique passwords, enabling two-factor authentication, reporting and deleting suspicious messages, and using anti-phishing software and tools. Two-factor authentication is not the best method to reduce the effectiveness of phishing attacks, as it may not prevent the users from falling for phishing in the first place. Two-factor authentication is a security mechanism that requires the users to provide two pieces of evidence to prove their identity, such as a password and a one-time code. However, some phishing attacks may be able to bypass or compromise two-factor authentication, such as by using man-in-the-middle techniques, intercepting the codes, or tricking the users into entering the codes on fake websites. Anti-phishing software is not the best method to reduce the effectiveness of phishing attacks, as it may not detect or block all phishing attempts. Anti-phishing software is a software application that helps the users to identify and avoid phishing emails and websites, by using various methods such as blacklists, whitelists, heuristics, and machine learning. However, anti-phishing software may not be able to keep up with the evolving and sophisticated techniques of phishing, such as using encryption, obfuscation, or personalization. Anti-phishing software may also generate false positives or negatives, which may confuse or mislead the users. Periodic vulnerability scan is not the best method to reduce the effectiveness of phishing attacks, as it may not address the human factor of phishing. Periodic vulnerability scan is a process that scans and tests the network, systems, and applications for potential weaknesses and exposures that may be exploited by attackers. However, phishing attacks mainly target the users, not the technical vulnerabilities, by exploiting their emotions, curiosity, or trust. Periodic vulnerability scan may not be able to prevent or detect phishing attacks, unless they are combined with user awareness and education. References: 4

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the main purpose of the demilitarized zone (DMZ) is to reduce the risk to internal systems. A DMZ is a network segment that is located between the external network (such as the Internet) and the internal network (such as the intranet) of an organization, and that contains servers or systems that are exposed or accessible to the external network, such as web servers, email servers, or DNS servers. A DMZ is used to isolate and protect the internal network from the external network, as it acts as a buffer or a barrier that prevents or limits the direct communication or connection between the external and the internal networks. A DMZ also helps to filter and monitor the traffic or the data that passes through the DMZ, as it is usually controlled and secured by firewalls, routers, or other security devices or mechanisms. By placing the servers or systems that are facing the Internet in the DMZ, the organization can reduce the risk to the internal systems, as it can prevent or mitigate the potential attacks or threats that may originate from the external network, such as the denial-of-service, the malware, or the hacking attacks. Prepare the server for potential attacks is not the main purpose of the DMZ, although it may be a benefit or a consequence of the DMZ. Preparing the server for potential attacks is the process of hardening or strengthening the server or the system that is facing the Internet, by applying the appropriate security measures or controls, such as the encryption, the authentication, or the patching of the server or the system. Preparing the server for potential attacks helps to increase the resilience or the resistance of the server or the system against the attacks or threats that may come from the external network, such as the denial-of-service, the malware, or the hacking attacks. Preparing the server for potential attacks may be a benefit or a consequence of the DMZ, as the DMZ may provide an additional layer of security or protection for the server or the system, as well as an opportunity or a platform for testing or evaluating the security or the performance of the server or the system. However, preparing the server for potential attacks is not the main purpose of the DMZ, as it is not the primary reason or the objective for creating or implementing the DMZ. Mitigate the risk associated with the exposed server is not the main purpose of the DMZ, although it may be a benefit or a consequence of the DMZ. Mitigating the risk associated with the exposed server is the process of reducing or minimizing the impact or the consequence of the attacks or threats that may target or affect the server or the system that is facing the Internet, by applying the appropriate security measures or controls, such as the backup, the recovery, or the contingency of the server or the system. Mitigating the risk associated with the exposed server helps to ensure the availability or the continuity of the server or the system, as well as the services or the functions that are provided or supported by the server or the system, in the event of the attacks or threats that may come from the external network, such as the denial-of-service, the malware, or the hacking attacks. Mitigating the risk associated with the exposed server may be a benefit or a consequence of the DMZ, as the DMZ may provide an additional layer of security or protection for the server or the system, as well as an opportunity or a platform for restoring or recovering the server or the system. However, mitigating the risk associated with the exposed server is not the main purpose of the DMZ, as it is not the primary reason or the objective for creating or implementing the DMZ. Bypass the need for a firewall is not the main purpose of the DMZ, in fact, it is the opposite or the contrary of the main purpose of the DMZ. Bypassing the need for a firewall is the process of avoiding or eliminating the use or the implementation of a firewall, which is a security device or mechanism that controls and secures the traffic or the data that passes through the network, by applying the rules or the policies that grant or deny the access or the communication between the networks, such as the external and the internal networks. Bypassing the need for a firewall may expose or compromise the security or the integrity of the network, as well as the servers or the systems that are connected or accessible to the network, as it may allow or enable the unauthorized or unintended traffic or data to enter or exit the network, which may lead to the attacks or threats that may come from the external network, such as the denial-of-service, the malware, or the hacking attacks. Bypassing the need for a firewall is not the main purpose of the DMZ, in fact, it is the opposite or the contrary of the main purpose of the DMZ, as the DMZ is usually controlled and secured by firewalls, routers, or other security devices or mechanisms, which are essential or integral components or elements of the DMZ. The DMZ does not bypass the need for a firewall, rather, it relies on or utilizes the firewall to achieve its main purpose, which is to reduce the risk to the internal systems.

 The primary security concern associated with the implementation of smart cards is that the cards can be misplaced, lost, stolen, or damaged, resulting in the compromise of the user’s identity, credentials, or data stored on the card. The other options are not the primary security concern, but rather secondary or minor issues. The cards have limited memory, which may affect the performance or functionality of the card, but not the security. Vendor application compatibility may affect the interoperability or usability of the card, but not the security. Mobile code can be embedded in the card, which may introduce malicious or unauthorized functionality, but this is a rare and sophisticated attack that requires physical access to the card and specialized equipment. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, p. 275; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, p. 348.

Degaussing

Overwriting

Destruction

Deleting

Comprehensive Explanation: Degaussing is the process of decreasing or eliminating a remnant magnetic field to reduce the risk of data remanence on magnetic media, making it the best method among the options provided. Overwriting involves replacing old data with new data, which can also be effective but not as thorough as degaussing. Destruction refers to physically destroying the media, which is effective but not always practical or environmentally friendly. Deleting is simply removing data pointers and does not actually erase the data from the media, making it the worst option.

References:

CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 10, p. 518.

CISSP practice exam questions and answers, Question 7.

The second phase of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) key/certificate life-cycle management is the initialization phase. PKI is a system that uses public key cryptography and digital certificates to provide authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and non-repudiation for electronic transactions. PKI key/certificate life-cycle management is the process of managing the creation, distribution, usage, storage, revocation, and expiration of keys and certificates in a PKI system. The key/certificate life-cycle management consists of six phases: pre-certification, initialization, certification, operational, suspension, and termination. The initialization phase is the second phase, where the key pair and the certificate request are generated by the end entity or the registration authority (RA). The initialization phase involves the following steps:

The end entity or the RA generates a key pair, consisting of a public key and a private key, using a secure and random method.

The end entity or the RA creates a certificate request, which contains the public key and other identity information of the end entity, such as the name, email, organization, etc.

The end entity or the RA submits the certificate request to the certification authority (CA), which is the trusted entity that issues and signs the certificates in the PKI system.

The end entity or the RA securely stores the private key and protects it from unauthorized access, loss, or compromise.

The other options are not the second phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather other phases. The implementation phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a phase of PKI system deployment, where the PKI components and policies are installed and configured. The cancellation phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a possible outcome of the termination phase, where the key pair and the certificate are permanently revoked and deleted. The issued phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a possible outcome of the certification phase, where the CA verifies and approves the certificate request and issues the certificate to the end entity or the RA.

According to the CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide1, the most important consideration when developing a Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) is to have a recovery strategy for all business processes. A DRP is a document that defines the procedures and actions to be taken in the event of a disaster that disrupts the normal operations of an organization. A recovery strategy is a plan that specifies how the organization will restore the critical business processes and functions, as well as the supporting resources, such as data, systems, personnel, and facilities, within the predefined recovery objectives and time frames. A recovery strategy should cover all business processes, not just the IT-related ones, as they may have interdependencies and impacts on each other. A recovery strategy should also be aligned with the business continuity plan (BCP), which is a document that defines the procedures and actions to be taken to ensure the continuity of the essential business operations during and after a disaster. The dynamic reconfiguration of systems is not the most important consideration when developing a DRP, although it may be a useful technique to enhance the resilience and availability of the systems. The dynamic reconfiguration of systems is the ability to change the configuration and functionality of the systems without interrupting their operations, such as adding, removing, or replacing components, modules, or services. The dynamic reconfiguration of systems may help to reduce the downtime and recovery time of the systems, but it does not address the recovery of the business processes and functions. The cost of downtime is not the most important consideration when developing a DRP, although it may be a factor that influences the recovery objectives and priorities. The cost of downtime is the amount of money that the organization loses or spends due to the disruption of its normal operations, such as loss of revenue, productivity, reputation, or customers, as well as the expenses for recovery, restoration, or compensation. The cost of downtime may help to justify the investment and budget for the DRP, but it does not address the recovery of the business processes and functions. A containment strategy is not the most important consideration when developing a DRP, although it may be a part of the incident response plan (IRP), which is a document that defines the procedures and actions to be taken to detect, analyze, contain, eradicate, and recover from a security incident. A containment strategy is a plan that specifies how the organization will isolate and control the incident, such as disconnecting the affected systems, blocking the malicious traffic, or changing the passwords. A containment strategy may help to prevent or limit the damage and spread of the incident, but it does not address the recovery of the business processes and functions. References: 1

The person in the organization who is accountable for the classification of data information assets is the data owner. The data owner is the person or entity that has the authority and responsibility for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. The data owner is also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. The data owner should be able to determine the impact of the data on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the data on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data. The data owner should also ensure that the data is properly labeled, stored, accessed, shared, and destroyed according to the data classification policy and procedures.

The other options are not the persons in the organization who are accountable for the classification of data information assets, but rather persons who have other roles or functions related to data management. The data architect is the person or entity that designs and models the structure, format, and relationships of the data, as well as the data standards, specifications, and lifecycle. The data architect supports the data owner by providing technical guidance and expertise on the data architecture and quality. The Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) is the person or entity that oversees the security strategy, policies, and programs of the organization, as well as the security performance and incidents. The CISO supports the data owner by providing security leadership and governance, as well as ensuring the compliance and alignment of the data security with the organizational objectives and regulations. The Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the person or entity that manages the information technology (IT) resources and services of the organization, as well as the IT strategy and innovation. The CIO supports the data owner by providing IT management and direction, as well as ensuring the availability, reliability, and scalability of the IT infrastructure and applications.

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a system that provides the services and mechanisms for creating, managing, distributing, using, storing, and revoking digital certificates and public keys. Digital signatures are a type of electronic signature that use public key cryptography to verify the authenticity and integrity of a message or document. A health care provider that is considering Internet access for their employees and patients should use PKI and digital signatures as the most secure solution for protection of data, because they provide confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation, and accountability for the data exchanged over the Internet. The other options are not as secure as PKI and digital signatures, because they do not provide all the security services or they rely on weaker forms of encryption or authentication. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, page 211; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 178

 Regarding asset security and appropriate retention, the initial top three areas that are important to focus on are security control baselines, access controls, employee awareness and training. Asset security and appropriate retention are the processes of identifying, classifying, protecting, and disposing of the assets of an organization, such as data, systems, devices, or facilities. Asset security and appropriate retention can help prevent or reduce the loss, theft, damage, or misuse of the assets, as well as comply with the legal and regulatory requirements. The initial top three areas that can help achieve asset security and appropriate retention are:

Security control baselines: These are the minimum set of security controls or measures that are applied to the assets based on their classification, value, and risk level. Security control baselines can help ensure the consistency, effectiveness, and efficiency of the security protection for the assets, as well as facilitate the monitoring and auditing of the security compliance. Security control baselines can include technical, administrative, or physical controls, such as encryption, authentication, policies, procedures, locks, alarms, etc34

Access controls: These are the mechanisms that regulate who or what can access, use, modify, or delete the assets. Access controls can help prevent or limit the unauthorized or malicious access to the assets, as well as enforce the principle of least privilege and the separation of duties. Access controls can include identification, authentication, authorization, and accountability (IAAA) processes, as well as access control models, such as discretionary, mandatory, or role-based access control56

Employee awareness and training: These are the activities that educate and inform the employees about the security policies, procedures, and best practices of the organization, as well as the roles and responsibilities of the employees regarding the asset security and appropriate retention. Employee awareness and training can help increase the knowledge, skills, and attitude of the employees towards security, as well as reduce the human errors, negligence, or violations that may compromise the asset security and appropriate retention. Employee awareness and training can include seminars, workshops, newsletters, posters, quizzes, etc.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 2: Asset Security, pp. 61-62; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 2: Asset Security, pp. 163-164.

The most likely cause of a non-malicious data breach when the source of the data breach was an un-marked file cabinet containing sensitive documents is ineffective data classification. Data classification is a process of assigning labels or categories to data based on their sensitivity, value, and criticality. Data classification can help protect the data from unauthorized access, disclosure, or misuse, as well as comply with the legal and regulatory requirements. Data classification can also guide the implementation of appropriate security controls and measures for different types of data, such as encryption, access control, retention, or disposal. Ineffective data classification can result in data being stored, handled, or transmitted without proper protection or awareness, which can lead to data breaches, even if they are not intentional or malicious56 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 28; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 30.

Encryption ensures that data is transformed into a code that can only be accessed by authorized parties. Security-enabled applications ensure that only authorized users can access specific network resources, protecting against passive network-layer attacks like eavesdropping or sniffing. References: ISC2 CISSP

Single Sign-On (SSO) is primarily designed to address accountability and assurance. SSO is a mechanism that enables a user to authenticate once and gain access to multiple systems or applications without having to reauthenticate. SSO improves accountability by providing a centralized and consistent way of managing user identities and access rights across different systems or applications. SSO also improves assurance by reducing the risk of password compromise, user fatigue, and human error, as users do not have to remember or enter multiple passwords. The other options are not the primary goals of SSO, but rather secondary benefits or challenges. Option A is a description of confidentiality and integrity, which are security properties that SSO can enhance by using strong encryption and authentication methods, but they are not the main purpose of SSO. Option B is a description of availability and accountability, which are security properties that SSO can improve by simplifying the user experience and reducing the authentication overhead, but they are not the primary objectives of SSO. Option C is a description of integrity and availability, which are security properties that SSO can support by ensuring the consistency and reliability of user data and access, but they are not the main focus of SSO. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, p. 281; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, p. 355.

 Code signing is the mobile code security model that relies only on trust. Mobile code is a type of software that can be transferred from one system to another and executed without installation or compilation. Mobile code can be used for various purposes, such as web applications, applets, scripts, macros, etc. Mobile code can also pose various security risks, such as malicious code, unauthorized access, data leakage, etc. Mobile code security models are the techniques that are used to protect the systems and users from the threats of mobile code. Code signing is a mobile code security model that relies only on trust, which means that the security of the mobile code depends on the reputation and credibility of the code provider. Code signing works as follows:

The code provider has a pair of public and private keys, and obtains a digital certificate from a trusted third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), that binds the public key to the identity of the code provider.

The code provider signs the mobile code with its private key and attaches the digital certificate to the mobile code.

The code consumer receives the mobile code and verifies the signature and the certificate with the public key of the code provider and the CA, respectively.

The code consumer decides whether to trust and execute the mobile code based on the identity and reputation of the code provider.

Code signing relies only on trust because it does not enforce any security restrictions or controls on the mobile code, but rather leaves the decision to the code consumer. Code signing also does not guarantee the quality or functionality of the mobile code, but rather the authenticity and integrity of the code provider. Code signing can be effective if the code consumer knows and trusts the code provider, and if the code provider follows the security standards and best practices. However, code signing can also be ineffective if the code consumer is unaware or careless of the code provider, or if the code provider is compromised or malicious.

The other options are not mobile code security models that rely only on trust, but rather on other techniques that limit or isolate the mobile code. Class authentication is a mobile code security model that verifies the permissions and capabilities of the mobile code based on its class or type, and allows or denies the execution of the mobile code accordingly. Sandboxing is a mobile code security model that executes the mobile code in a separate and restricted environment, and prevents the mobile code from accessing or affecting the system resources or data. Type safety is a mobile code security model that checks the validity and consistency of the mobile code, and prevents the mobile code from performing illegal or unsafe operations.

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the best course of action for the database administrator in this scenario is to inform the audit committee or internal audit directly using the corporate whistleblower process. A whistleblower is a person who reports or exposes any wrongdoing, fraud, corruption, or illegal activity within an organization to the appropriate authorities or parties. A whistleblower process is a mechanism that enables and protects the whistleblowers from any retaliation or discrimination, and ensures that their reports are handled properly and confidentially. The database administrator should inform the audit committee or internal audit directly using the corporate whistleblower process, as this would demonstrate their professional ethics and responsibility, as well as their compliance with the organizational policies and standards. The database administrator should not ignore the request and do not perform the change, as this would be unprofessional and irresponsible, and may also expose them to potential pressure or threats from the high-ranking member of management. The database administrator should not perform the change as requested, and rely on the next audit to detect and report the situation, as this would be unethical and illegal, and may also compromise the integrity and reliability of the accounting system database. The database administrator should not perform the change, but create a change ticket regardless to ensure there is complete traceability, as this would be dishonest and risky, and may also create a conflict or discrepancy with the high-ranking member of management. References: 1

The security service that is served by the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key is identification. Identification is the process of verifying the identity of a person or entity that claims to be who or what it is. Identification can be achieved by using public key cryptography and digital signatures, which are based on the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key. This process works as follows:

The sender has a pair of public and private keys, and the public key is shared with the receiver in advance.

The sender encrypts the plaintext message with its private key, which produces a ciphertext that is also a digital signature of the message.

The sender sends the ciphertext to the receiver, along with the plaintext message or a hash of the message.

The receiver decrypts the ciphertext with the sender’s public key, which produces the same plaintext message or hash of the message.

The receiver compares the decrypted message or hash with the original message or hash, and verifies the identity of the sender if they match.

The process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key serves identification because it ensures that only the sender can produce a valid ciphertext that can be decrypted by the receiver, and that the receiver can verify the sender’s identity by using the sender’s public key. This process also provides non-repudiation, which means that the sender cannot deny sending the message or the receiver cannot deny receiving the message, as the ciphertext serves as a proof of origin and delivery.

The other options are not the security services that are served by the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key. Confidentiality is the process of ensuring that the message is only readable by the intended parties, and it is achieved by encrypting plaintext with the receiver’s public key and decrypting ciphertext with the receiver’s private key. Integrity is the process of ensuring that the message is not modified or corrupted during transmission, and it is achieved by using hash functions and message authentication codes. Availability is the process of ensuring that the message is accessible and usable by the authorized parties, and it is achieved by using redundancy, backup, and recovery mechanisms.

Cross-talk is a type of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) phenomenon that occurs when signals from one cable or circuit interfere with signals from another cable or circuit. Cross-talk can create information leakage by allowing an attacker to eavesdrop on or modify the transmitted data. Cross-talk can be caused by electromagnetic induction, capacitive coupling, or common impedance coupling. Cross-talk can be reduced by using shielded cables, twisted pairs, or optical fibers123. References:

Identifying and Locating Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), Section: Types of Interference

Radio Frequency Interference: an NWP perspective on the RFI 2022 workshop, Section: Categories of Interference

What is Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)? - Definition … - Techopedia, Section: Definition

Monitoring of a control should occur at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control when implementing Information Security Continuous Monitoring (ISCM) solutions. ISCM is a process that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of a system or network, by collecting, analyzing, and reporting the security data and information, using various methods and tools. ISCM can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the system or network with the internal or external requirements and standards

A security control is a measure or mechanism that is implemented to protect the system or network from the security threats or risks, by preventing, detecting, or correcting the security incidents or impacts. A security control can have various types, such as administrative, technical, or physical, and various attributes, such as preventive, detective, or corrective. A security control can also have different levels of volatility, which is the degree or frequency of change or variation of the security control, due to various factors, such as the security requirements, the threat landscape, or the system or network environment.

Monitoring of a control should occur at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it can ensure that the ISCM solutions can capture and reflect the current and accurate state and performance of the security control, and can identify and report any issues or risks that might affect the security control. Monitoring of a control at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control can also help to optimize the ISCM resources and efforts, by allocating them according to the priority and urgency of the security control.

The other options are not the correct frequencies for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, but rather incorrect or unrealistic frequencies that might cause problems or inefficiencies for the ISCM solutions. Continuously without exception for all security controls is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not feasible or necessary to monitor all security controls at the same and constant rate, regardless of their volatility or importance. Continuously monitoring all security controls without exception might cause the ISCM solutions to consume excessive or wasteful resources and efforts, and might overwhelm or overload the ISCM solutions with too much or irrelevant data and information. Before and after each change of the control is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not sufficient or timely to monitor the security control only when there is a change of the security control, and not during the normal operation of the security control. Monitoring the security control only before and after each change might cause the ISCM solutions to miss or ignore the security status, events, and activities that occur between the changes of the security control, and might delay or hinder the ISCM solutions from detecting and responding to the security issues or incidents that affect the security control. Only during system implementation and decommissioning is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not appropriate or effective to monitor the security control only during the initial or final stages of the system or network lifecycle, and not during the operational or maintenance stages of the system or network lifecycle. Monitoring the security control only during system implementation and decommissioning might cause the ISCM solutions to neglect or overlook the security status, events, and activities that occur during the regular or ongoing operation of the system or network, and might prevent or limit the ISCM solutions from improving and optimizing the security control.

The best person to consult for a data retention policy requirement is the privacy officer, who is responsible for ensuring that the organization complies with the applicable privacy laws, regulations, and standards. A data retention policy defines the criteria and procedures for retaining, storing, and disposing of data, especially personal data, in accordance with the legal and business requirements. The privacy officer can advise on the data retention policy by identifying the relevant privacy mandates, assessing the data types and categories, determining the retention periods and disposal methods, and implementing the appropriate controls and measures. The other options are not the best person to consult, but rather stakeholders or contributors to the data retention policy. An application manager is responsible for managing the development, maintenance, and operation of applications, but not the data retention policy. A database administrator is responsible for managing the design, implementation, and performance of databases, but not the data retention policy. A finance manager is responsible for managing the financial resources and activities of the organization, but not the data retention policy. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, p. 118; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, p. 292; CISSP practice exam questions and answers, Question 8.

The primary characteristic of a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is that it looks like normal network activity. A DDoS attack is a type of attack or a threat that aims or intends to disrupt or to degrade the availability or the performance of a system or a service, by overwhelming or flooding the system or the service with a large amount or a high volume of traffic or requests, from multiple or distributed sources or locations, such as the compromised or infected computers, devices, or networks, that are controlled or coordinated by the attacker or the malicious actor. The primary characteristic of a DDoS attack is that it looks like normal network activity, which means that it is difficult or challenging to detect or to prevent the DDoS attack, as it is hard or impossible to distinguish or to differentiate the legitimate or the authentic traffic or requests from the illegitimate or the malicious traffic or requests, and as it is hard or impossible to block or to filter the illegitimate or the malicious traffic or requests, without affecting or impacting the legitimate or the authentic traffic or requests. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, page 115; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 172

Ensuring accountability for changes to the environment is the primary reason for implementing change management. Change management is a process that ensures that any changes to the system or network environment, such as the hardware, software, configuration, or documentation, are planned, approved, implemented, and documented in a controlled and consistent manner. Change management can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and reliability of the system or network environment by preventing or reducing the errors, conflicts, or disruptions that might occur due to the changes

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system or network environment by optimizing the resources and functions

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the system or network environment with the internal or external requirements and standards

Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the system or network environment by tracking and logging the changes and their outcomes

Ensuring accountability for changes to the environment is the primary reason for implementing change management, because it can ensure that the changes are authorized, justified, and traceable, and that the parties involved in the changes are responsible and accountable for their actions and results. Accountability can also help to deter or detect any unauthorized or malicious changes that might compromise the system or network environment.

The other options are not the primary reasons for implementing change management, but rather secondary or specific reasons for different aspects or phases of change management. Certifying and approving releases to the environment is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the approval phase of change management, which is the phase that involves reviewing and validating the changes and their impacts, and granting or denying the permission to proceed with the changes. Providing version rollbacks for system changes is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the implementation phase of change management, which is the phase that involves executing and monitoring the changes and their effects, and providing the backup and recovery options for the changes. Ensuring that all applications are approved is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the application changes, which are the changes that affect the software components or services that provide the functionality or logic of the system or network environment.

The organization will provide the limits and scope of the testing to the security services firm that will conduct a penetration test. The limits and scope of the testing define the boundaries, objectives, and rules of engagement for the penetration test, such as the target systems, the testing methods, the testing duration, the testing schedule, the testing team, the testing tools, the testing reporting, and the testing authorization. The limits and scope of the testing are essential for ensuring the legality, the ethics, and the effectiveness of the penetration test.

B. Physical location of server room and wiring closet is not something that the organization will provide to the security services firm that will conduct a penetration test, as it could compromise the security and the integrity of the network infrastructure and the testing results.

C. Logical location of filters and concentrators is not something that the organization will provide to the security services firm that will conduct a penetration test, as it could reveal the network architecture and the security controls and affect the testing accuracy and validity.

D. Employee directory and organizational chart is not something that the organization will provide to the security services firm that will conduct a penetration test, as it could violate the privacy and the confidentiality of the employees and the organization.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 427; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, page 381

 If compromised, the virtual machine monitor would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines. The virtual machine monitor, also known as the hypervisor, is the software layer that creates and manages the virtual machines on a physical host. The virtual machine monitor controls the allocation and distribution of the hardware resources, such as CPU, memory, disk, and network, among the virtual machines. The virtual machine monitor also provides the isolation and separation of the virtual machines from each other and from the physical host. If the virtual machine monitor is compromised, the attacker can gain access to all the virtual machines and their data, as well as the physical host and its resources.

A. Virtual device drivers are not the components that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the components that enable the communication and interaction between the virtual machines and the physical devices. Virtual device drivers are the software modules that emulate the functionality and behavior of the physical devices, such as keyboards, mice, disks, or network cards, for the virtual machines. Virtual device drivers can be compromised by malicious code or data, but they only affect the specific virtual machine that uses them, not the other virtual machines or the physical host.

C. Virtual machine instance is not the component that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the component that represents a single virtual machine. A virtual machine instance is the software implementation of a computer system that runs on the virtual machine monitor and shares the hardware resources with other virtual machines. A virtual machine instance can be compromised by malware or attacks, but it only affects the security and functionality of that virtual machine, not the other virtual machines or the physical host, unless the virtual machine monitor is also compromised.

D. Virtual machine file system is not the component that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the component that stores the data and configuration of a virtual machine. A virtual machine file system is the logical structure that organizes the files and directories of a virtual machine on the physical storage device. A virtual machine file system can be compromised by unauthorized access or modification, but it only affects the integrity and availability of that virtual machine, not the other virtual machines or the physical host, unless the virtual machine monitor is also compromised.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 269; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, page 234

 The advantage of on premise credential management systems is that they provide more control over the system configuration and customization. On premise credential management systems are the systems that store and manage the credentials, such as usernames, passwords, tokens, or certificates, of the users or the devices within an organization’s own network or infrastructure. On premise credential management systems can offer more flexibility and security for the organization, as they can tailor the system to their specific needs and requirements, and they can enforce their own policies and standards for the credential management.

A. Improved credential interoperability is not an advantage of on premise credential management systems, but rather an advantage of cloud-based credential management systems. Cloud-based credential management systems are the systems that store and manage the credentials of the users or the devices on a third-party cloud service provider’s network or infrastructure. Cloud-based credential management systems can offer more interoperability and scalability for the organization, as they can support different types of credentials and devices, and they can adjust to the changing demand and workload of the credential management.

C. Lower infrastructure capital costs is not an advantage of on premise credential management systems, but rather an advantage of cloud-based credential management systems. Cloud-based credential management systems can reduce the infrastructure capital costs for the organization, as they do not require the organization to purchase, install, or maintain their own hardware or software for the credential management. Instead, the organization can pay a subscription fee or a usage fee to the cloud service provider for the credential management service.

D. Reduced administrative overhead is not an advantage of on premise credential management systems, but rather an advantage of cloud-based credential management systems. Cloud-based credential management systems can reduce the administrative overhead for the organization, as they do not require the organization to perform the tasks or the functions related to the credential management, such as backup, recovery, patching, or updating. Instead, the cloud service provider can handle these tasks or functions for the organization, as part of the credential management service.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 346; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, page 307

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the type of security testing that is being performed when an ethical hacker has no knowledge about the target system but the testing target is notified before the test is blind. Security testing is the process of assessing or evaluating the security or the vulnerability of the system or the network, by performing or conducting various tests or methods, such as the scanning, the analysis, or the penetration of the system or the network. Security testing can be classified into four types, based on the level of knowledge or information that the tester or the ethical hacker has about the target system or the network, as well as the level of notification or consent that the testing target or the owner has about the test, which are:

Reversal: Security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has full or complete knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has no or zero notification or consent about the test, such as the reverse engineering or the decompiling of the system or the network.

Gray box: Security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has partial or limited knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has partial or limited notification or consent about the test, such as the vulnerability assessment or the code review of the system or the network.

Blind: Security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has no or zero knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has full or complete notification or consent about the test, such as the black box testing or the penetration testing of the system or the network.

White box: Security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has full or complete knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has full or complete notification or consent about the test, such as the white box testing or the auditing of the system or the network.

The type of security testing that is being performed when an ethical hacker has no knowledge about the target system but the testing target is notified before the test is blind, as it matches the definition or the description of the blind security testing, which is the security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has no or zero knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has full or complete notification or consent about the test. Reversal is not the type of security testing that is being performed when an ethical hacker has no knowledge about the target system but the testing target is notified before the test, as it does not match the definition or the description of the reversal security testing, which is the security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has full or complete knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has no or zero notification or consent about the test. Gray box is not the type of security testing that is being performed when an ethical hacker has no knowledge about the target system but the testing target is notified before the test, as it does not match the definition or the description of the gray box security testing, which is the security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has partial or limited knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has partial or limited notification or consent about the test. White box is not the type of security testing that is being performed when an ethical hacker has no knowledge about the target system but the testing target is notified before the test, as it does not match the definition or the description of the white box security testing, which is the security testing that is performed or conducted when the tester or the ethical hacker has full or complete knowledge or information about the target system or the network, and the testing target or the owner has full or complete notification or consent about the test. References: 1

Access based on user’s role provides the minimum set of privileges required to perform a job function and restricts the user to a domain with the required privileges. This is also known as role-based access control (RBAC), which is a method of enforcing the principle of least privilege. RBAC assigns permissions to roles rather than individual users, and users are assigned roles based on their responsibilities and qualifications

Improper stress testing and application interfaces primarily contribute to security incidents in web-based applications. Stress testing is a type of performance testing that evaluates how a web-based application behaves under extreme or abnormal conditions, such as high traffic, heavy load, or limited resources. Stress testing can help identify the potential bottlenecks, errors, or failures that may affect the functionality, reliability, or security of the web-based application. Improper stress testing can result in undetected vulnerabilities or weaknesses that can be exploited by attackers. Application interfaces are the points of interaction between a web-based application and other systems, components, or users. Application interfaces can include web services, APIs, user interfaces, or network protocols. Application interfaces can introduce security risks if they are not designed, implemented, or secured properly. For example, application interfaces may expose sensitive data, allow unauthorized access, or enable injection attacks56 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, p. 491; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 8: Software Development Security, p. 1009.

 For an organization considering two-factor authentication for secure network access, the most secure option is smart card and biometrics. A smart card is a physical device that contains a microchip or a magnetic stripe that stores information, such as a digital certificate, a private key, or a personal identification number (PIN). A biometric is a physical or behavioral characteristic of a user that can be measured and compared, such as a fingerprint, a retina scan, a voice print, or a facial recognition. Smart card and biometrics are two different types of factors that can provide strong and reliable authentication for network access. A smart card can prove that the user has a valid credential or key, while a biometric can prove that the user is who they claim to be. Smart card and biometrics can prevent unauthorized or fraudulent access, as they are difficult to forge, copy, or share56 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, pp. 322-323; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 4: Communication and Network Security, pp. 450-451.

 According to the CISSP For Dummies3, the goal of a Business Impact Analysis (BIA) is to determine the resource priorities for recovery and Maximum Tolerable Downtime (MTD) for each business process and function. This means that the BIA should identify the criticality and dependencies of each business process and function, and the maximum amount of time that they can be disrupted without causing unacceptable consequences to the organization. The BIA should also determine the recovery point objectives (RPOs) and recovery time objectives (RTOs) for each business process and function, which are the acceptable levels of data loss and downtime respectively. The BIA should not focus on the cost effectiveness of business recovery or installing software security patches, as these are not the primary objectives of the BIA. The BIA should also not determine which security measures should be implemented, as this is the role of the risk assessment and risk management processes. References: 3

After acquiring the latest security updates, the best practice is to install the patches on a test system before deploying them to the production systems. This is to ensure that the patches are compatible with the system configuration and do not cause any adverse effects or conflicts with the existing applications or services. The test system should be isolated from the production environment and should have the same or similar specifications and settings as the production system.

A. Use tools to detect missing system patches is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done before acquiring the security updates. This is to identify the current patch level and the patch requirements of the system.

C. Subscribe to notifications for vulnerabilities is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done as part of the ongoing patch management process. This is to stay informed of the latest security threats and vulnerabilities and the corresponding patches or mitigations.

D. Assess the severity of the situation is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done before acquiring the security updates. This is to prioritize the patching activities based on the risk and impact of the vulnerabilities.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 336; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, page 297

The best way to avoid data reminisce disclosure for cloud hosted resources is to use strong encryption and delete the virtual host after data is deleted. Data reminisce is the residual data that remains on the storage media after the data is deleted or overwritten. Data reminisce can pose a risk of data leakage or unauthorized access if the storage media is reused, recycled, or disposed of without proper sanitization. By using strong encryption, the data is protected from unauthorized decryption even if the data reminisce is recovered. By deleting the virtual host, the data is removed from the cloud provider’s infrastructure and the storage media is released from the allocation pool.

A. Strong encryption and deletion of the keys after data is deleted is not the best way to avoid data reminisce disclosure for cloud hosted resources, because it does not ensure that the data is completely erased from the storage media. Deleting the keys only prevents the data from being decrypted, but the data reminisce may still be recoverable by forensic tools or techniques.

C. Software based encryption with two factor authentication is not the best way to avoid data reminisce disclosure for cloud hosted resources, because it does not address the issue of data deletion or sanitization. Software based encryption relies on the operating system or the application to encrypt and decrypt the data, which may leave traces of the data or the keys in the memory or the cache. Two factor authentication only enhances the access control to the data, but it does not prevent the data reminisce from being exposed if the storage media is compromised.

D. Hardware based encryption on dedicated physical servers is not the best way to avoid data reminisce disclosure for cloud hosted resources, because it is not applicable to the cloud computing model. Hardware based encryption relies on the storage device or the controller to encrypt and decrypt the data, which may offer better performance and security than software based encryption. However, dedicated physical servers are not compatible with the cloud paradigm of shared, scalable, and elastic resources.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 282; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, page 247

According to the CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide2, a characteristic of the initialization vector when using Data Encryption Standard (DES) is that it can be transmitted in the clear as a random number. An initialization vector (IV) is a value or a parameter that is used to initialize or modify the encryption or decryption process, such as the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode of operation. An IV is used to provide an additional layer of security and randomness to the encryption or decryption process, as it prevents the same plaintext from producing the same ciphertext, and vice versa. An IV can be transmitted in the clear as a random number, as it does not contain any sensitive or confidential information, and as it changes with each session or transaction, making it difficult for the attackers to predict or manipulate the encrypted or decrypted data patterns. An IV must be known to both sender and receiver is not a characteristic of the initialization vector when using Data Encryption Standard (DES), as it is a requirement or a condition for the initialization vector when using any symmetric encryption algorithm, not a specific characteristic for DES. A symmetric encryption algorithm is an encryption algorithm that uses the same key for both encryption and decryption, such as DES, Triple DES, or Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). A symmetric encryption algorithm requires that the IV must be known to both sender and receiver, as it is needed for both encryption and decryption, and as it is used to synchronize the encryption or decryption process between the sender and the receiver. An IV must be retained until the last block is transmitted is not a characteristic of the initialization vector when using Data Encryption Standard (DES), as it is a requirement or a condition for the initialization vector when using any block cipher algorithm, not a specific characteristic for DES. A block cipher algorithm is an encryption algorithm that divides the plaintext or the ciphertext into fixed-length blocks, and encrypts or decrypts each block separately, such as DES, Triple DES, or AES. A block cipher algorithm requires that the IV must be retained until the last block is transmitted, as it is used to link or chain the blocks together, and as it is needed for the encryption or decryption of the last block. An IV can be used to encrypt and decrypt information is not a characteristic of the initialization vector when using Data Encryption Standard (DES), as it is a function or a purpose of the initialization vector when using any encryption algorithm, not a specific characteristic for DES. An encryption algorithm is a mathematical function or procedure that transforms the plaintext or the original data into the ciphertext or the encrypted data, and vice versa, using a key or a parameter, such as DES, Triple DES, AES, or Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA). An encryption algorithm uses the IV to encrypt and decrypt information, as it is a value or a parameter that is used to initialize or modify the encryption or decryption process, and as it provides an additional layer of security and randomness to the encryption or decryption process. References: 2

 Defense in depth is a security strategy that involves applying multiple layers of protection to a system or network to prevent or mitigate attacks. The use of strong authentication, the encryption of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) on database servers, application security reviews, and the encryption of data transmitted across networks are examples of defense in depth measures that can enhance the security of the system or network.

A, C, and D are incorrect because they are not the best terms to describe the security strategy. Data integrity is a property of data that ensures its accuracy, consistency, and validity. Data availability is a property of data that ensures its accessibility and usability. Non-repudiation is a property of data that ensures its authenticity and accountability. While these properties are important for security, they are not the same as defense in depth.

According to the CISSP For Dummies4, the activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution is simultaneous connection to other networks. A VPN is a technology that creates a secure and encrypted tunnel over a public or untrusted network, such as the internet, to connect remote users or sites to the organization’s private network, such as the intranet. A VPN provides security and privacy for the data and communication that are transmitted over the tunnel, as well as access to the network resources and services that are available on the private network. However, a VPN also introduces some security risks and challenges, such as configuration errors, authentication issues, malware infections, or data leakage. One of the security risks of a VPN is simultaneous connection to other networks, which occurs when a VPN user connects to the organization’s private network and another network at the same time, such as a home network, a public Wi-Fi network, or a malicious network. This creates a potential vulnerability or backdoor for the attackers to access or compromise the organization’s private network, by exploiting the weaker security or lower trust of the other network. Therefore, the organization should implement and enforce policies and controls to prevent or restrict the simultaneous connection to other networks when using a VPN solution. VPN bandwidth is not an activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution, although it may be a factor that affects the performance and availability of the VPN solution. VPN bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted or received over the VPN tunnel per unit of time, which depends on the speed and capacity of the network connection, the encryption and compression methods, the traffic load, and the network congestion. VPN bandwidth may limit the quality and efficiency of the data and communication that are transmitted over the VPN tunnel, but it does not directly pose a significant security risk to the organization’s private network. Users with IP addressing conflicts is not an activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution, although it may be a factor that causes errors and disruptions in the VPN solution. IP addressing conflicts occur when two or more devices or hosts on the same network have the same IP address, which is a unique identifier that is assigned to each device or host to communicate over the network.

According to the CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide2, the things that are required to assure authenticity are authentication and non-repudiation. Authenticity is the property that ensures that the data, information, system, network, or entity is genuine, original, and trustworthy, and is not counterfeit, altered, or impersonated. Authentication is the process of verifying and confirming the identity or the validity of a subject or an entity, such as a user, a device, or a message. Authentication helps to assure authenticity, as it ensures that the subject or the entity is who or what it claims to be, and is not an impostor, a fraud, or a forgery. Non-repudiation is the process of preventing or denying the denial or the dispute of an action or an event, such as the sending, receiving, or signing of a message. Non-repudiation helps to assure authenticity, as it ensures that the subject or the entity cannot deny or reject the authenticity or the validity of the action or the event, and is held accountable and responsible for it. Confidentiality is not the thing that is required to assure authenticity, although it may be a thing that is supported or enhanced by authenticity. Confidentiality is the property that ensures that the data or information is only accessible or disclosed to the authorized parties, and is protected from unauthorized or unintended access or disclosure. Confidentiality may be supported or enhanced by authenticity, as it ensures that the data or information is not accessed or disclosed by the impostors, frauds, or forgeries, and that the data or information is not counterfeit, altered, or impersonated. However, confidentiality is not the thing that is required to assure authenticity, as it does not verify or confirm the identity or the validity of the subject or the entity, or prevent or deny the denial or the dispute of the action or the event. Integrity is not the thing that is required to assure authenticity, although it may be a thing that is supported or enhanced by authenticity. Integrity is the property that ensures that the data or information is accurate, complete, and consistent, and is protected from unauthorized or unintended modification or corruption. Integrity may be supported or enhanced by authenticity, as it ensures that the data or information is not modified or corrupted by the impostors, frauds, or forgeries, and that the data or information is genuine, original, and trustworthy. However, integrity is not the thing that is required to assure authenticity, as it does not verify or confirm the identity or the validity of the subject or the entity, or prevent or deny the denial or the dispute of the action or the event.

A disaster recovery test plan is a document that describes the methods and procedures for testing the effectiveness and readiness of a disaster recovery plan (DRP), which is a subset of a BCP that focuses on restoring the organization’s IT systems and data after a disruption or disaster. A disaster recovery test plan can have different types and levels of testing, depending on the objectives, scope, and resources of the organization. A parallel test is a type of disaster recovery test plan that involves activating the backup site and running the critical systems and processes in parallel with the primary site, without disrupting the normal operations. A parallel test is the most effective type of disaster recovery test plan, as it simulates a realistic scenario of a disruption or disaster, and allows the organization to evaluate the performance and functionality of the backup site, as well as the communication and coordination between the primary and backup sites. A parallel test also provides minimal risk, as it does not affect the normal operations of the primary site, and does not require switching over to the backup site. A read-through test is a type of disaster recovery test plan that involves reviewing the DRP document and verifying its accuracy and completeness, without performing any actual actions. A read-through test is the least effective type of disaster recovery test plan, as it does not test the actual implementation and execution of the DRP, and does not identify any potential issues or gaps in the DRP. A full interruption test is a type of disaster recovery test plan that involves shutting down the primary site and switching over to the backup site, and performing the normal operations from the backup site. A full interruption test is the most realistic type of disaster recovery test plan, as it tests the actual implementation and execution of the DRP, and identifies any potential issues or gaps in the DRP. However, a full interruption test also provides the highest risk, as it affects the normal operations of the primary site, and may cause data loss, downtime, or customer dissatisfaction. A simulation test is a type of disaster recovery test plan that involves simulating a disruption or disaster scenario and performing the actions and procedures of the DRP, without activating the backup site or affecting the normal operations. A simulation test is a moderately effective type of disaster recovery test plan, as it tests the implementation and execution of the DRP, and identifies any potential issues or gaps in the DRP. However, a simulation test also provides moderate risk, as it does not test the performance and functionality of the backup site, and may not simulate a realistic scenario of a disruption or disaster. References: [Disaster Recovery Test Plan], [CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Operations]2

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the identity management process in which the subject’s identity is established is enrollment. Enrollment is the process of registering or enrolling a subject into an identity management system, such as a user into an authentication system, or a device into a network. Enrollment is the process in which the subject’s identity is established, as it involves verifying and validating the subject’s identity, as well as collecting and storing the subject’s identity attributes, such as the name, email, or biometrics of the subject. Enrollment also involves issuing and assigning the subject’s identity credentials, such as the username, password, or certificate of the subject. Enrollment helps to create and maintain the subject’s identity record or profile, as well as to enable and facilitate the subject’s access and use of the system or network. Trust is not the identity management process in which the subject’s identity is established, although it may be a factor that influences the enrollment process. Trust is the degree of confidence or assurance that a subject or an entity has in another subject or entity, such as a user in a system, or a system in a network. Trust may influence the enrollment process, as it may determine the level or extent of the identity verification and validation, as well as the identity attributes and credentials that are required or provided for the enrollment process. Provisioning is not the identity management process in which the subject’s identity is established, although it may be a process that follows or depends on the enrollment process. Provisioning is the process of creating, assigning, and configuring a subject’s account or resource with the necessary access rights and permissions to perform the tasks and functions that are required by the subject’s role and responsibilities, as well as the security policies and standards of the system or network. Provisioning is not the process in which the subject’s identity is established, as it does not involve verifying and validating the subject’s identity, or collecting and storing the subject’s identity attributes or credentials. Authorization is not the identity management process in which the subject’s identity is established, although it may be a process that follows or depends on the enrollment process. Authorization is the process of granting or denying a subject’s access or use of an object or a resource, based on the subject’s identity, role, or credentials, as well as the security policies and rules of the system or network. Authorization is not the process in which the subject’s identity is established, as it does not involve verifying and validating the subject’s identity, or collecting and storing the subject’s identity attributes or credentials. References: 1

The Systems Engineering Life Cycle (SELC) Technical Processes are the activities that transform stakeholder needs into a system solution. They include the following five processes: Stakeholder Requirements Definition, Architectural Design, Implementation, Verification, and Operation.

References:

Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, p. 489.

CISSP practice exam questions and answers, Question 11.

 By allowing storage communications to run on top of Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) with a Storage Area Network (SAN), the opportunity to sniff network traffic exists. A SAN is a dedicated network that connects storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, or servers, to provide high-speed data access and transfer. A SAN may use different protocols or technologies to communicate with storage devices, such as Fibre Channel, iSCSI, or NFS. By allowing storage communications to run on top of TCP/IP, a common network protocol that supports internet and intranet communications, a SAN may leverage the existing network infrastructure and reduce costs and complexity. However, this also exposes the storage communications to the same risks and threats that affect the network communications, such as sniffing, spoofing, or denial-of-service attacks. Sniffing is the act of capturing or monitoring network traffic, which may reveal sensitive or confidential information, such as passwords, encryption keys, or data. By allowing storage communications to run on top of TCP/IP with a SAN, the confidentiality of the traffic is not protected, unless encryption or other security measures are applied. The opportunity for device identity spoofing is not eliminated, as an attacker may still impersonate a legitimate storage device or server by using a forged or stolen IP address or MAC address. The storage devices are not protected against availability attacks, as an attacker may still disrupt or overload the network or the storage devices by sending malicious or excessive packets or requests.

Storage Area Network (SAN): SANs are designed for centralized storage and access control mechanisms can be implemented to track users and their activities.

Backup Media, Backup Server, Database Server, Web Server: These are typically secured components within a system and would likely have user authentication and access logging mechanisms.

Laptop: Laptops are portable and might be used outside the organization's secure network. They may not have the same level of monitoring and logging as the other components, making it more difficult to hold users accountable for their access to information.

The primary areas that need to be addressed concerning mobile code used for malicious purposes, in addition to web browsers, are email, media players, and instant messaging applications. Mobile code is a type of code that can be transferred or executed over a network, such as the internet, without the user’s knowledge or consent, and that can perform various functions or tasks on the user’s system, such as displaying advertisements, collecting information, or installing malware. Mobile code can be embedded or attached in various types of applications or files, such as web browsers, email, media players, or instant messaging applications, and can pose a serious security threat to the user’s system or data. Text editors, database, and internet phone applications are not the primary areas that need to be addressed concerning mobile code used for malicious purposes, as they are not the common or likely sources or targets of the mobile code attacks, and they may not support or execute the mobile code as easily or frequently as the other applications. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1050. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1066.

The most beneficial phase for security personnel involvement in the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) process is the requirements definition phase. This is the phase where the security personnel can identify and analyze the security needs, objectives, and constraints of the system, and define the security requirements and specifications that the system must meet. By involving security personnel in this phase, the organization can ensure that security is integrated into the system design from the beginning, and avoid costly or complex changes or fixes later in the SDLC process. The other options are not as beneficial as the requirements definition phase, as they either involve security personnel too late in the SDLC process (A, B, and D), or do not address the security needs and objectives of the system (D). References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 459; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, page 551.

The amount of data that will be collected during an audit is primarily determined by the audit scope. The audit scope is the extent and boundaries of the audit, such as the subject matter, the time period, the locations, the departments, the functions, the systems, or the processes to be audited. The audit scope defines what will be included or excluded from the audit, and it helps to ensure that the audit objectives are met and the audit resources are used efficiently and effectively. The auditor’s experience level, the availability of the data, and the integrity of the data are not the primary factors that determine the amount of data that will be collected during an audit, as they depend on the audit scope to be defined first. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 54. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 69.

 A risk assessment is the best first step for determining if the appropriate security controls are in place for protecting data at rest. A risk assessment involves identifying the assets, threats, vulnerabilities, and impacts related to the data, as well as the likelihood and severity of potential breaches. Based on the risk assessment, the appropriate security controls can be selected and implemented to mitigate the risks to an acceptable level. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 35; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 41.

A synchronous token is a hardware device that generates and displays a one-time password (OTP) that changes at fixed intervals, usually based on a clock or a counter. The OTP is synchronized with the authentication server, and the user must enter the OTP within a certain time window to log in. This is an example of single factor authentication based on something the user has (the token). The other options are not correct, as they either do not match the description of the token (A and B), or do not specify the type of token ©. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 331; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, page 387.

 The organization should ensure that the third party’s physical security controls are in place so that they are able to limit access to sensitive information. Physical security controls are the measures or the mechanisms that protect the physical assets, such as the hardware, the software, the media, or the personnel, from the unauthorized or the malicious access, damage, or theft. Physical security controls can include locks, fences, guards, cameras, alarms, or biometrics. The organization should ensure that the third party’s physical security controls are able to limit access to sensitive information, as it can prevent or reduce the risk of the data breach, the data loss, or the data corruption, and it can ensure the confidentiality, the integrity, and the availability of the information. The organization should also ensure that the third party’s physical security controls are compliant with the organization’s policies, standards, and regulations, and that they are audited and monitored regularly. The organization should not ensure that the third party’s physical security controls are more rigorous than the original controls, allow access by the organization staff at any time, or cannot be accessed by subcontractors of the third party, as they are related to the level, the scope, or the restriction of the physical security controls, not the ability to limit access to sensitive information. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, Security Operations, page 849. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, Security Operations, page 865.

 When using third-party software developers, the most effective method of providing software development Quality Assurance (QA) is to perform overlapping code reviews by both parties. Code reviews are the process of examining the source code of an application for quality, functionality, security, and compliance. Overlapping code reviews by both parties means that the code is reviewed by both the third-party developers and the contracting organization, and that the reviews cover the same or similar aspects of the code. This can ensure that the code meets the requirements and specifications, that the code is free of defects or vulnerabilities, and that the code is consistent and compatible with the existing system or environment. Retaining intellectual property rights through contractual wording, verifying that the contractors attend development planning meetings, and creating a separate contractor development environment are all possible methods of providing software development QA, but they are not the most effective method of doing so. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1026. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1050.

 A valid reason for keeping a customer transaction beyond the retention schedule is a pending legal hold. A legal hold is a requirement or an order to preserve certain records or data that are relevant or potentially relevant to a legal matter, such as a lawsuit, an investigation, or an audit. A legal hold can override the normal record retention schedule or policy of an organization, and can mandate the organization to retain the records or data until the legal matter is resolved or the legal hold is lifted. A pending legal hold can be a valid reason for keeping a customer transaction beyond the retention schedule, as it can ensure the compliance, evidence, or liability of the organization or the customer. Long term data mining needs, customer makes request to retain, and useful for future business initiatives are not valid reasons for keeping a customer transaction beyond the retention schedule, as they are related to the business value, preference, or strategy of the organization or the customer, not the legal obligation or necessity of the organization or the customer. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 49. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 64.

The best factor that supports the recommendation of upgrading all perimeter firewalls to mitigate a particular finding is that the expected loss from the risk exceeds mitigation costs. The expected loss from the risk is the product of the probability of occurrence and the impact of the risk, which can be measured by the Annualized Loss Expectancy (ALE). The mitigation costs are the expenses associated with implementing the security controls or countermeasures to reduce the risk. If the expected loss from the risk exceeds the mitigation costs, then it is economically justified to invest in the mitigation strategy, such as upgrading the firewalls. The inherent risk is greater than the residual risk, the ALE approaches zero, and the infrastructure budget can easily cover the upgrade costs are not the best factors that support the recommendation, as they do not indicate the cost-benefit analysis or the return on investment of the mitigation strategy. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 47. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 62.

The main feature that onion routing networks offer is anonymity. Anonymity is the state of being unknown or unidentifiable by hiding or masking the identity or the location of the sender or the receiver of a communication. Onion routing is a technique that enables anonymous communication over a network, such as the internet, by encrypting and routing the messages through multiple layers of intermediate nodes, called onion routers. Onion routing can protect the privacy and security of the users or the data, and can prevent censorship, surveillance, or tracking by third parties. Non-repudiation, traceability, and resilience are not the main features that onion routing networks offer, as they are related to the proof, tracking, or recovery of the communication, not the anonymity of the communication. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 467. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 483.

The most difficult thing to enforce when using cloud computing is data disposal. Data disposal is the process of permanently deleting or destroying the data that is no longer needed or authorized, in a secure and compliant manner. Data disposal is challenging when using cloud computing, because the data may be stored or replicated in multiple locations, devices, or servers, and the cloud provider may not have the same policies, procedures, or standards as the cloud customer. Data disposal may also be affected by the legal or regulatory requirements of different jurisdictions, or the contractual obligations of the cloud service agreement. Data access, data backup, and data recovery are not the most difficult things to enforce when using cloud computing, as they can be achieved by using encryption, authentication, authorization, replication, or restoration techniques, and by specifying the service level agreements and the roles and responsibilities of the cloud provider and the cloud customer. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 337. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 353.

 A potential risk when a program runs in privileged mode is that it may allow malicious code to be inserted. Privileged mode, also known as kernel mode or supervisor mode, is a mode of operation that grants the program full access and control over the hardware and software resources of the system, such as memory, disk, CPU, and devices. A program that runs in privileged mode can perform any action or instruction without any restriction or protection. This can be exploited by an attacker who can inject malicious code into the program, such as a rootkit, a backdoor, or a keylogger, and gain unauthorized access or control over the system . References: : What is Privileged Mode? : Privilege Escalation - OWASP Cheat Sheet Series

The first step of a penetration test plan is to obtain the approval of the company’s management, as well as the consent of the target network’s owner or administrator. This is essential to ensure the legality, ethics, and scope of the test, as well as to define the objectives, expectations, and deliverables of the test. Without proper authorization, a penetration test could be considered as an unauthorized or malicious attack, and could result in legal or reputational consequences . References: : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 758. : CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 7, page 234.

 A sandbox is a security mechanism that isolates a potentially malicious code or application from the rest of the system, preventing it from accessing or modifying any sensitive data or resources1. A sandbox can be implemented at the operating system, application, or network level, and can provide a safe environment for testing, debugging, or executing untrusted code. A sandbox is the most effective countermeasure to a malicious code attack against a mobile system, as it can prevent the code from spreading, stealing, or destroying any information on the device. Change control, memory management, and PKI are not directly related to preventing or mitigating malicious code attacks on mobile systems. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 507.

A Business Continuity Plan (BCP) is considered to be valid when it has been validated by realistic exercises. A BCP is a part of a BCP/DRP that focuses on ensuring the continuous operation of the organization’s critical business functions and processes during and after a disruption or disaster. A BCP should include various components, such as:

Business impact analysis: a process that identifies and prioritizes the critical business functions and processes, and assesses the potential impacts and risks of a disruption or disaster on them

Recovery strategies: a process that defines and selects the appropriate methods and resources to recover the critical business functions and processes, such as alternate sites, backup systems, or recovery teams

BCP document: a document that outlines and details the scope, purpose, and features of the BCP, such as the roles and responsibilities, the recovery procedures, and the contact information

Testing, training, and exercises: a process that evaluates and validates the effectiveness and readiness of the BCP, and educates and trains the relevant stakeholders, such as the staff, the management, and the customers, on the BCP and their roles and responsibilities

Maintenance and review: a process that monitors and updates the BCP, and addresses any changes or issues that might affect the BCP, such as the business requirements, the threat landscape, or the feedback and lessons learned

A BCP is considered to be valid when it has been validated by realistic exercises, because it can ensure that the BCP is practical and applicable, and that it can achieve the desired outcomes and objectives in a real-life scenario. Realistic exercises are a type of testing, training, and exercises that involve performing and practicing the BCP with the relevant stakeholders, using simulated or hypothetical scenarios, such as a fire drill, a power outage, or a cyberattack. Realistic exercises can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the confidence and competence of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards

Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

The other options are not the criteria for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather the steps or parties that are involved in developing or approving a BCP. When it has been validated by the Business Continuity (BC) manager is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather a step that is involved in developing a BCP. The BC manager is the person who is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the BCP activities and processes, such as the business impact analysis, the recovery strategies, the BCP document, the testing, training, and exercises, and the maintenance and review. The BC manager can validate the BCP by reviewing and verifying the BCP components and outcomes, and ensuring that they meet the BCP standards and objectives. However, the validation by the BC manager is not enough to consider the BCP to be valid, as it does not test or demonstrate the BCP in a realistic scenario. When it has been validated by the board of directors is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather a party that is involved in approving a BCP. The board of directors is the group of people who are elected by the shareholders to represent their interests and to oversee the strategic direction and governance of the organization. The board of directors can approve the BCP by endorsing and supporting the BCP components and outcomes, and allocating the necessary resources and funds for the BCP. However, the approval by the board of directors is not enough to consider the BCP to be valid, as it does not test or demonstrate the BCP in a realistic scenario. When it has been validated by all threat scenarios is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather an unrealistic or impossible expectation for validating a BCP. A threat scenario is a description or a simulation of a possible or potential disruption or disaster that might affect the organization’s critical business functions and processes, such as a natural hazard, a human error, or a technical failure. A threat scenario can be used to test and validate the BCP by measuring and evaluating the BCP’s performance and effectiveness in responding and recovering from the disruption or disaster. However, it is not possible or feasible to validate the BCP by all threat scenarios, as there are too many or unknown threat scenarios that might occur, and some threat scenarios might be too severe or complex to simulate or test. Therefore, the BCP should be validated by the most likely or relevant threat scenarios, and not by all threat scenarios.

 Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident is the first step in the incident response process. An incident is an event that violates or threatens the security, availability, integrity, or confidentiality of the IT systems or data. An incident response is a process that involves detecting, analyzing, containing, eradicating, recovering, and learning from an incident, using various methods and tools. An incident response can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the IT systems and data by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps

Enhancing the security and decision making of the IT systems and data by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the IT systems and data by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the IT systems and data with the internal or external requirements and standards

Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident is the first step in the incident response process, because it can ensure that the incident is verified and validated, and that the incident response is initiated and escalated. A symptom is a sign or an indication that an incident may have occurred or is occurring, such as an alert, a log, or a report. Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident involves collecting and analyzing the relevant data and information from various sources, such as the IT systems, the network, the users, or the external parties, and determining whether an incident has actually happened or is happening, and how serious or urgent it is. Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident can also help to:

Prevent the false positives or negatives that might cause the incident response to be delayed or unnecessary

Identify the scope and impact of the incident on the IT systems and data

Notify and inform the appropriate stakeholders and authorities about the incident

Activate and coordinate the incident response team and resources

The other options are not the first steps in the incident response process, but rather steps that should be done after or along with investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident. Determining the cause of the incident is a step that should be done after investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the root cause and source of the incident are identified and analyzed, and that the incident response is directed and focused. Determining the cause of the incident involves examining and testing the affected IT systems and data, and tracing and tracking the origin and path of the incident, using various techniques and tools, such as forensics, malware analysis, or reverse engineering. Determining the cause of the incident can also help to:

Understand the nature and behavior of the incident and the attacker

Detect and resolve any issues or risks caused by the incident

Prevent and mitigate any future incidents or attacks involving the same or similar cause

Support and enable the legal or regulatory actions or investigations against the incident or the attacker

Disconnecting the system involved from the network is a step that should be done along with investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the system is isolated and protected from any external or internal influences or interferences, and that the incident response is conducted in a safe and controlled environment. Disconnecting the system involved from the network can also help to:

Prevent the incident from communicating or connecting with any other system or network, and potentially spreading or escalating the attack

Prevent the incident from receiving or sending any commands or data, and potentially altering or deleting the evidence

Prevent the incident from detecting or evading the incident response, and potentially hiding or destroying itself

Isolating and containing the system involved is a step that should be done after investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the incident is confined and restricted, and that the incident response is continued and maintained. Isolating and containing the system involved involves applying and enforcing the appropriate security measures and controls to limit or stop the activity and impact of the incident on the IT systems and data, such as firewall rules, access policies, or encryption keys. Isolating and containing the system involved can also help to:

Minimize the damage and loss caused by the incident on the IT systems and data

Maximize the recovery and restoration of the IT systems and data

Support and enable the eradication and removal of the incident from the IT systems and data

Facilitate the learning and improvement of the IT systems and data from the incident

 Isolating the system from the network is the most important step during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application. An unknown application is an application that is not recognized or authorized by the system or network administrator, and that may have been installed or executed without the user’s knowledge or consent. An unknown application may have various purposes, such as:

Providing a legitimate or useful function or service for the user, such as a utility or a tool

Providing an illegitimate or malicious function or service for the attacker, such as a malware or a backdoor

Providing a neutral or benign function or service for the developer, such as a trial or a demo

Forensic analysis is a process that involves examining and investigating the system or network for any evidence or traces of the unknown application, such as its origin, nature, behavior, and impact. Forensic analysis can provide several benefits, such as:

Identifying and classifying the unknown application as legitimate, malicious, or neutral

Determining and assessing the purpose and function of the unknown application

Detecting and resolving any issues or risks caused by the unknown application

Preventing and mitigating any future incidents or attacks involving the unknown application

Isolating the system from the network is the most important step during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application, because it can ensure that the system is isolated and protected from any external or internal influences or interferences, and that the forensic analysis is conducted in a safe and controlled environment. Isolating the system from the network can also help to:

Prevent the unknown application from communicating or connecting with any other system or network, and potentially spreading or escalating the attack

Prevent the unknown application from receiving or sending any commands or data, and potentially altering or deleting the evidence

Prevent the unknown application from detecting or evading the forensic analysis, and potentially hiding or destroying itself

The other options are not the most important steps during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application, but rather steps that should be done after or along with isolating the system from the network. Disabling all unnecessary services is a step that should be done after isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the system is optimized and simplified for the forensic analysis, and that the system resources and functions are not consumed or affected by any irrelevant or redundant services. Ensuring chain of custody is a step that should be done along with isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the integrity and authenticity of the evidence are maintained and documented throughout the forensic process, and that the evidence can be traced and verified. Preparing another backup of the system is a step that should be done after isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the system data and configuration are preserved and replicated for the forensic analysis, and that the system can be restored and recovered in case of any damage or loss.

Recovery strategies of a Disaster Recovery planning (DRP) must be aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives. A DRP is a part of a BCP/DRP that focuses on restoring the normal operation of the organization’s IT systems and infrastructure after a disruption or disaster. A DRP should include various components, such as:

Risk assessment: a process that identifies and evaluates the potential threats and vulnerabilities that might affect the IT systems and infrastructure, and estimates the likelihood and impact of a disruption or disaster

Recovery objectives: a process that defines and quantifies the acceptable levels of recovery for the IT systems and infrastructure, such as the recovery point objective (RPO), which is the maximum amount of data loss that can be tolerated, and the recovery time objective (RTO), which is the maximum amount of downtime that can be tolerated

Recovery strategies: a process that selects and implements the appropriate methods and resources to recover the IT systems and infrastructure, such as backup, replication, redundancy, or failover

DRP document: a document that outlines and details the scope, purpose, and features of the DRP, such as the roles and responsibilities, the recovery procedures, and the contact information

Testing, training, and exercises: a process that evaluates and validates the effectiveness and readiness of the DRP, and educates and trains the relevant stakeholders, such as the IT staff, the management, and the users, on the DRP and their roles and responsibilities

Maintenance and review: a process that monitors and updates the DRP, and addresses any changes or issues that might affect the DRP, such as the IT requirements, the threat landscape, or the feedback and lessons learned

Recovery strategies of a DRP must be aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives, because it can ensure that the DRP is feasible and suitable, and that it can achieve the desired outcomes and objectives in a cost-effective and efficient manner. A cost/benefit analysis is a technique that compares the costs and benefits of different recovery strategies, and determines the optimal one that provides the best value for money. A business objective is a goal or a target that the organization wants to achieve through its IT systems and infrastructure, such as increasing the productivity, profitability, or customer satisfaction. A recovery strategy that is aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives can help to:

Optimize the use and allocation of the IT resources and funds for the recovery

Minimize the negative impacts and risks of a disruption or disaster on the IT systems and infrastructure

Maximize the positive outcomes and benefits of the recovery for the IT systems and infrastructure

Support and enable the achievement of the organizational goals and targets through the IT systems and infrastructure

The other options are not the factors that the recovery strategies of a DRP must be aligned with, but rather factors that should be considered or addressed when developing or implementing the recovery strategies of a DRP. Hardware and software compatibility issues are factors that should be considered when developing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can affect the functionality and interoperability of the IT systems and infrastructure, and may require additional resources or adjustments to resolve them. Applications’ criticality and downtime tolerance are factors that should be addressed when implementing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can determine the priority and urgency of the recovery for different applications, and may require different levels of recovery objectives and resources. Budget constraints and requirements are factors that should be considered when developing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can limit the availability and affordability of the IT resources and funds for the recovery, and may require trade-offs or compromises to balance them.

Minimization of the need for decision making during a crisis is the main benefit that a Business Continuity Plan/Disaster Recovery Plan (BCP/DRP) will provide. A BCP/DRP is a set of policies, procedures, and resources that enable an organization to continue or resume its critical functions and operations in the event of a disruption or disaster. A BCP/DRP can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the resilience and preparedness of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards

Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

Minimization of the need for decision making during a crisis is the main benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it can ensure that the organization and its staff have a clear and consistent guidance and direction on how to respond and act during a disruption or disaster, and avoid any confusion, uncertainty, or inconsistency that might worsen the situation or impact. A BCP/DRP can also help to reduce the stress and pressure on the organization and its staff during a crisis, and increase their confidence and competence in executing the plans.

The other options are not the benefits that a BCP/DRP will provide, but rather unrealistic or incorrect expectations or outcomes of a BCP/DRP. Guaranteed recovery of all business functions is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not possible or feasible to recover all business functions after a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is severe or prolonged. A BCP/DRP can only prioritize and recover the most critical or essential business functions, and may have to suspend or terminate the less critical or non-essential business functions. Insurance against litigation following a disaster is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not a guarantee or protection that the organization will not face any legal or regulatory consequences or liabilities after a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is caused by the organization’s negligence or misconduct. A BCP/DRP can only help to mitigate or reduce the legal or regulatory risks, and may have to comply with or report to the relevant authorities or parties. Protection from loss of organization resources is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not a prevention or avoidance of any damage or destruction of the organization’s assets or resources during a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is physical or natural. A BCP/DRP can only help to restore or replace the lost or damaged assets or resources, and may have to incur some costs or losses.

A warm site is the most cost effective solution for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours. A DR site is a backup facility that can be used to restore the normal operation of the organization’s IT systems and infrastructure after a disruption or disaster. A DR site can have different levels of readiness and functionality, depending on the organization’s recovery objectives and budget. The main types of DR sites are:

Hot site: a DR site that is fully operational and equipped with the necessary hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity to allow the organization to be up and running almost immediately. A hot site has all the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and can function as a branch office or data center that is online and connected to the production network. A hot site also has a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, which may be replicated in real time or near real time. A hot site greatly reduces or eliminates downtime for the organization, but it is also very expensive to maintain and operate.

Warm site: a DR site that is partially operational and equipped with some of the hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity to allow the organization to be up and running within a short time. A warm site has some of the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and can function as a temporary office or data center that is offline or partially connected to the production network. A warm site may have a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, but it is not updated or synchronized as frequently as a hot site. A warm site reduces downtime for the organization, but it is also less expensive than a hot site.

Cold site: a DR site that is not operational and equipped with only the basic infrastructure and environmental support systems to allow the organization to be up and running within a long time. A cold site has none of the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and cannot function as an office or data center until they are installed and configured. A cold site does not have a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, and it has to be restored from other sources, such as tapes or disks. A cold site increases downtime for the organization, but it is also the cheapest option among the DR sites.

Mirror site: a DR site that is an exact replica of the primary site, with the same hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity, and with the same data and applications. A mirror site is always online and synchronized with the primary site, and can take over the operation of the organization seamlessly in the event of a disruption or disaster. A mirror site eliminates downtime for the organization, but it is also the most expensive option among the DR sites.

A warm site is the most cost effective solution for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it can provide a balance between the recovery time and the recovery cost. A warm site can enable the organization to resume its critical functions and operations within a reasonable time frame, without spending too much on the DR site maintenance and operation. A warm site can also provide some flexibility and scalability for the organization to adjust its recovery strategies and resources according to its needs and priorities.

The other options are not the most cost effective solutions for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, but rather solutions that are either too costly or too slow for the organization’s recovery objectives and budget. A hot site is a solution that is too costly for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to invest a lot of money on the DR site equipment, software, and services, and to pay for the ongoing operational and maintenance costs. A hot site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that cannot be unavailable for more than a few hours or minutes, or that have very high availability and performance requirements. A mirror site is a solution that is too costly for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to duplicate its entire primary site, with the same hardware, software, data, and applications, and to keep them online and synchronized at all times. A mirror site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that cannot afford any downtime or data loss, or that have very strict compliance and regulatory requirements. A cold site is a solution that is too slow for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to spend a lot of time and effort on the DR site installation, configuration, and restoration, and to rely on other sources of backup data and applications. A cold site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that can be unavailable for more than a few days or weeks, or that have very low criticality and priority.

Simulation is the type of business continuity test that includes assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations. Business continuity is the ability of an organization to maintain or resume its critical functions and operations in the event of a disruption or disaster. Business continuity testing is the process of evaluating and validating the effectiveness and readiness of the business continuity plan (BCP) and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) through various methods and scenarios. Business continuity testing can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the confidence and competence of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards

Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

There are different types of business continuity tests, depending on the scope, purpose, and complexity of the test. Some of the common types are:

Walkthrough: a type of business continuity test that involves reviewing and discussing the BCP and DRP with the relevant stakeholders, such as the business continuity team, the management, and the staff. A walkthrough can provide a basic and qualitative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to familiarize and educate the stakeholders with the plans and their roles and responsibilities.

Simulation: a type of business continuity test that involves performing and practicing the BCP and DRP with the relevant stakeholders, using simulated or hypothetical scenarios, such as a fire drill, a power outage, or a cyberattack. A simulation can provide a realistic and quantitative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to test and train the stakeholders with the plans and their actions and reactions.

Parallel: a type of business continuity test that involves activating and operating the alternate site or system, while maintaining the normal operations at the primary site or system. A parallel test can provide a comprehensive and comparative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to verify and validate the functionality and compatibility of the alternate site or system.

Full interruption: a type of business continuity test that involves shutting down and transferring the normal operations from the primary site or system to the alternate site or system. A full interruption test can provide a conclusive and definitive assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to evaluate and measure the impact and effectiveness of the plans.

Simulation is the type of business continuity test that includes assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations, because it can simulate various types of risks, such as natural, human, or technical, and assess how the organization and its systems can cope and recover from them, without actually causing any harm or disruption to the live operations. Simulation can also help to identify and mitigate any potential risks that might affect the live operations, and to improve the resilience and preparedness of the organization and its systems.

The other options are not the types of business continuity tests that include assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations, but rather types that have other objectives or effects. Walkthrough is a type of business continuity test that does not include assessment of resilience to internal and external risks, but rather a review and discussion of the BCP and DRP, without any actual testing or practice. Parallel is a type of business continuity test that does not endanger live operations, but rather maintains them, while activating and operating the alternate site or system. Full interruption is a type of business continuity test that does endanger live operations, by shutting them down and transferring them to the alternate site or system.

 Consolidation of multiple providers is the primary advantage of using a third-party identity service. A third-party identity service is a service that provides identity and access management (IAM) functions, such as authentication, authorization, and federation, for multiple applications or systems, using a single identity provider (IdP). A third-party identity service can offer various benefits, such as:

Improving the user experience and convenience by allowing the users to access multiple applications or systems with a single sign-on (SSO) or a federated identity

Enhancing the security and compliance by applying the consistent and standardized IAM policies and controls across multiple applications or systems

Increasing the scalability and flexibility by enabling the integration and interoperability of multiple applications or systems with different platforms and technologies

Reducing the cost and complexity by outsourcing the IAM functions to a third-party provider, and avoiding the duplication and maintenance of multiple IAM systems

Consolidation of multiple providers is the primary advantage of using a third-party identity service, because it can simplify and streamline the IAM architecture and processes, by reducing the number of IdPs and IAM systems that are involved in managing the identities and access for multiple applications or systems. Consolidation of multiple providers can also help to avoid the issues or risks that might arise from having multiple IdPs and IAM systems, such as the inconsistency, redundancy, or conflict of the IAM policies and controls, or the inefficiency, vulnerability, or disruption of the IAM functions.

The other options are not the primary advantages of using a third-party identity service, but rather secondary or specific advantages for different aspects or scenarios of using a third-party identity service. Directory synchronization is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the scenario where the organization has an existing directory service, such as LDAP or Active Directory, that stores and manages the user accounts and attributes, and wants to synchronize them with the third-party identity service, to enable the SSO or federation for the users. Web based logon is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the aspect where the third-party identity service uses a web-based protocol, such as SAML or OAuth, to facilitate the SSO or federation for the users, by redirecting them to a web-based logon page, where they can enter their credentials or consent. Automated account management is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the aspect where the third-party identity service provides the IAM functions, such as provisioning, deprovisioning, or updating, for the user accounts and access rights, using an automated or self-service mechanism, such as SCIM or JIT.

 Making a copy of the hard drive should be the first action to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved. A chain of evidence, also known as a chain of custody, is a process that documents and preserves the integrity and authenticity of the evidence collected from a crime scene, such as a desktop computer. A chain of evidence should include information such as:

The identity and role of the person who collected, handled, or transferred the evidence

The date and time of the collection, handling, or transfer of the evidence

The location and condition of the evidence

The method and tool used to collect, handle, or transfer the evidence

The signature or seal of the person who collected, handled, or transferred the evidence

Making a copy of the hard drive should be the first action to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved, because it can ensure that the original hard drive is not altered, damaged, or destroyed during the forensic analysis, and that the copy can be used as a reliable and admissible source of evidence. Making a copy of the hard drive should also involve using a write blocker, which is a device or a software that prevents any modification or deletion of the data on the hard drive, and generating a hash value, which is a unique and fixed identifier that can verify the integrity and consistency of the data on the hard drive.

The other options are not the first actions to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved, but rather actions that should be done after or along with making a copy of the hard drive. Taking the computer to a forensic lab is an action that should be done after making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the computer is transported and stored in a secure and controlled environment, and that the forensic analysis is conducted by qualified and authorized personnel. Starting documenting is an action that should be done along with making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the chain of evidence is maintained and recorded throughout the forensic process, and that the evidence can be traced and verified. Turning off the computer is an action that should be done after making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the computer is powered down and disconnected from any network or device, and that the computer is protected from any further damage or tampering.

The capabilities of the system that allow its business users to perform business functions but not user administration functions, and its application administrators to perform administration functions but not user business functions, are best described as separation of duties. Separation of duties is a security principle that divides the roles and responsibilities of different tasks or functions among different individuals or groups, so that no one person or group has complete control or authority over a critical process or asset. Separation of duties can help to prevent fraud, collusion, abuse, or errors, and to ensure accountability, oversight, and checks and balances. Least privilege, rule based access controls, and Mandatory Access Control (MAC) are not the best descriptions of the capabilities of the system, as they do not reflect the division of roles and responsibilities among different users or groups. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 32. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 45.

The best approach to mitigate future internal client-based attacks is to harden the client image before deployment. Hardening the client image means to apply the security configurations and measures to the client operating system and applications, such as disabling unnecessary services, installing patches and updates, enforcing strong passwords, and enabling encryption and firewall. Hardening the client image can help to reduce the attack surface and the vulnerabilities of the client, and to prevent or resist the client-based attacks, such as web exploits, malware, or phishing. Blocking all client side web exploits at the perimeter, removing all non-essential client-side web services from the network, and screening for harmful exploits of client-side services before implementation are not the best approaches to mitigate future internal client-based attacks, as they are related to the network or the server level, not the client level, and they may not address all the possible types or sources of the client-based attacks. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 295. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 311.

The access control logs must contain the time of the access, in addition to the identifier. Access control logs are the records or the files that capture and store the information or the data related to the access control events or activities, such as the authentication, the authorization, the audit, or the accountability. Access control logs can help to monitor and analyze the access control performance and effectiveness, to detect and investigate any security incidents or breaches, and to provide evidence or proof for any legal or regulatory actions. The access control logs must contain the time of the access, as it can help to identify and verify when the access control event or activity occurred, and to correlate and compare it with other events or activities, such as the network traffic, the system activity, or the user behavior. The time of the access can also help to determine the duration and the frequency of the access control event or activity, and to measure and evaluate the access control efficiency and quality. The security classification, the denied access attempts, and the associated clearance are not the information that must be contained in the access control logs, as they are related to the level of sensitivity or protection of the data or the resource, the unsuccessful or rejected access control requests, or the level of authorization or permission of the user or the device, not the time of the access control event or activity. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 671. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 687.

 The type of accounts that violates identity and access management best practices is generic accounts. Generic accounts are accounts that are shared by multiple users or devices, and do not have a specific or unique identity associated with them. Generic accounts are often used for convenience, compatibility, or legacy reasons, but they pose a serious security risk, as they can compromise the accountability, traceability, and auditability of the actions and activities performed by the users or devices. Generic accounts can also enable unauthorized or malicious access, as they may have weak or default passwords, or may not have proper access control or monitoring mechanisms. User accounts, system accounts, and privileged accounts are not the types of accounts that violate identity and access management best practices, as they are accounts that have a specific or unique identity associated with them, and can be subject to proper authentication, authorization, and auditing measures. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 660. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 676.

The best reason to review audit logs periodically is to identify anomalies in use patterns that may indicate unauthorized or malicious activities, such as intrusion attempts, data breaches, policy violations, or system errors. Audit logs record the events and actions that occur on a system or network, and can provide valuable information for security analysis, investigation, and response. The other options are not as good as identifying anomalies, as they either do not relate to security (B), or are not the primary purpose of audit logs (A and D). References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 405; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, page 465.

The level of confidentiality of the information is the most important factor to consider when deciding whether to encrypt it or not when transmitting it over public networks. Confidentiality is the property of preventing unauthorized disclosure of information, and encryption is a technique of transforming information into an unreadable format that can only be decrypted by authorized parties2. Public networks, such as the internet, are inherently insecure and vulnerable to interception, eavesdropping, or modification of the transmitted data. Therefore, encryption is necessary to protect the confidentiality of sensitive or classified information that may have legal, financial, or personal implications if disclosed. The estimated monetary value, the presence of transient nodes, and the volume of the information are not as relevant as the level of confidentiality, as they do not directly reflect the impact or risk of data exposure. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 3, page 63.

 In a Bell-LaPadula system, a user has the most restrictions when writing data to any of the four files if they have the lowest clearance level. This is because of the star property (*property) of the Bell-LaPadula model, which states that a subject with a given security clearance may write data to an object if and only if the object’s security level is greater than or equal to the subject’s security level. This rule is also known as the no write-down rule, as it prevents the leakage of information from a higher level to a lower level. In this question, User A has a Restricted clearance, which is the lowest level among the four users. Therefore, User A has the most restrictions when writing data to any of the four files, as they can only write data to File 1, which has the same security level as their clearance. User B, User C, and User D have less restrictions when writing data to any of the four files, as they can write data to more than one file, depending on their clearance levels and the security classes of the files. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 498. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 514.

The most important priority for the information security officer is to obtain the formal acceptance of the security strategy. The security strategy is a document that defines the vision, mission, goals, and objectives of the security program, and that aligns the security activities and initiatives with the business needs and requirements. The formal acceptance of the security strategy means that the security strategy is approved and supported by the senior management and the key stakeholders of the organization, and that it is communicated and understood by the employees and the users. The formal acceptance of the security strategy can help to ensure the success and the effectiveness of the security program, as it can provide the authority, the resources, the guidance, and the accountability for the security officer and the security department. Disciplinary actions taken against unethical behavior, development of an awareness program for new employees, and audit of all organization system configurations for faults are not the most important priorities for the information security officer, as they are related to the enforcement, the education, or the evaluation of the security policies and procedures, not the definition or the approval of the security strategy. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 32. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 47.

The primary security concern as staff is released from the organization is the loss of data and separation of duties. The loss of data is the event or the situation where the data is deleted, corrupted, stolen, or leaked by the staff who are leaving the organization, either intentionally or unintentionally, and where the data is no longer available or recoverable by the organization. The loss of data can compromise the confidentiality, the integrity, and the availability of the data, and can cause damage or harm to the organization’s operations, reputation, or objectives. The separation of duties is the principle or the practice of dividing the tasks or the responsibilities among different staff or roles, to prevent or reduce the conflicts of interest, the collusion, the fraud, or the errors. The separation of duties can be compromised when the staff is released from the organization, as it can create the gaps or the overlaps in the tasks or the responsibilities, and it can increase the risk of the unauthorized or the malicious access or activity. Inadequate IT support, undocumented security controls, and additional responsibilities for remaining staff are not the primary security concerns as staff is released from the organization, as they are related to the quality, the transparency, or the workload of the IT operations, not the loss of data or the separation of duties. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 29. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 44.

Automated application security testing tools are software tools that can scan, analyze, and test the code of an application for vulnerabilities, errors, or flaws. The primary advantage of using these tools is that they can test large amounts of code using fewer resources, such as time, money, and human effort, than manual testing. This can improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and coverage of the testing process. The application can be protected in the production environment, the application will fail less when tested using these tools, and detailed testing of code functions can be performed are all possible outcomes of using automated application security testing tools, but they are not the primary advantage of using them. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1017. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1039.

The required components for implementing software configuration management systems are audit control and signoff, rollback and recovery processes, and regression testing and evaluation. Software configuration management systems are tools and techniques that enable the identification, control, tracking, and verification of the changes and versions of software products throughout the software development life cycle. Audit control and signoff are the mechanisms that ensure that the changes and versions of the software products are authorized, documented, reviewed, and approved by the appropriate stakeholders. Rollback and recovery processes are the procedures that enable the restoration of the previous state or version of the software products in case of a failure or error. Regression testing and evaluation are the methods that verify that the changes and versions of the software products do not introduce new defects or affect the existing functionality or performance. User training and acceptance are not required components for implementing software configuration management systems, as they are related to the deployment and operation of the software products, not the configuration management. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1037. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, Software Development Security, page 1063.

The factor that most influences the design of the organization’s electronic monitoring policies is workplace privacy laws. Workplace privacy laws are the laws that regulate the extent and manner of the employer’s monitoring or surveillance of the employee’s activities, communications, or behavior in the workplace, such as email, phone, internet, or video monitoring. Workplace privacy laws vary by country, state, or region, and may impose different requirements or restrictions on the employer’s electronic monitoring policies, such as the purpose, scope, consent, disclosure, or protection of the monitoring data. The employer must comply with the applicable workplace privacy laws when designing and implementing the electronic monitoring policies, to avoid violating the employee’s privacy rights or facing legal consequences. Level of organizational trust, results of background checks, and business ethical considerations are not the factors that most influence the design of the organization’s electronic monitoring policies, as they are related to the culture, security, or values of the organization, not the legal or regulatory framework of the electronic monitoring. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 50. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 65.

An example of two-factor authentication is fingerprint and a smart card. Two-factor authentication is a type of authentication that requires two different factors or methods to verify the identity or the credentials of a user or a device. The factors or methods can be categorized into three types: something you know, something you have, or something you are. Something you know is a factor that relies on the knowledge of the user or the device, such as a password, a PIN, or a security question. Something you have is a factor that relies on the possession of the user or the device, such as a smart card, a token, or a certificate. Something you are is a factor that relies on the biometrics of the user or the device, such as a fingerprint, a retina scan, or a voice recognition. Fingerprint and a smart card are an example of two-factor authentication, as they combine two different factors: something you are and something you have. Retina scan and a palm print are not an example of two-factor authentication, as they are both the same factor: something you are. Magnetic stripe card and an ID badge are not an example of two-factor authentication, as they are both the same factor: something you have. Password and CAPTCHA are not an example of two-factor authentication, as they are both the same factor: something you know. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 685. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 701.

 The best option for low maintenance and ease of deployment to enable student access to university resources from their homes is to use Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) VPN technology. SSL VPN is a type of virtual private network that uses the SSL protocol to provide secure and remote access to the network resources over the internet. SSL VPN does not require the installation or configuration of any special client software or hardware on the student’s device, as it can use the web browser as the client interface. SSL VPN can also support various types of devices, operating systems, and applications, and can provide granular access control and encryption for the network traffic. Providing students with Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) VPN client software, using Secure Shell (SSH) with public/private keys, and requiring students to purchase home router capable of VPN are not the best options for low maintenance and ease of deployment, as they involve more complexity, cost, and compatibility issues for the students and the university. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 507. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 523.

 A continuous information security monitoring program can best reduce risk through encompassing people, process, and technology. A continuous information security monitoring program is a process that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of a system or network, by collecting, analyzing, and reporting the security data and information, using various methods and tools. A continuous information security monitoring program can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the system or network with the internal or external requirements and standards

A continuous information security monitoring program can best reduce risk through encompassing people, process, and technology, because it can ensure that the continuous information security monitoring program is holistic and comprehensive, and that it covers all the aspects and elements of the system or network security. People, process, and technology are the three pillars of a continuous information security monitoring program, and they represent the following:

People: the human resources that are involved in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security analysts, the system administrators, the management, and the users. People are responsible for defining the security objectives and requirements, implementing and operating the security tools and controls, and monitoring and responding to the security events and incidents.

Process: the procedures and policies that are followed in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security standards and guidelines, the security roles and responsibilities, the security workflows and tasks, and the security metrics and indicators. Process is responsible for establishing and maintaining the security governance and compliance, ensuring the security consistency and efficiency, and measuring and evaluating the security performance and effectiveness.

Technology: the tools and systems that are used in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security sensors and agents, the security loggers and collectors, the security analyzers and correlators, and the security dashboards and reports. Technology is responsible for supporting and enabling the security functions and capabilities, providing the security visibility and awareness, and delivering the security data and information.

The other options are not the best ways to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but rather specific or partial ways that can contribute to the risk reduction. Collecting security events and correlating them to identify anomalies is a specific way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only focuses on one aspect of the security data and information, and it does not address the other aspects, such as the security objectives and requirements, the security controls and measures, and the security feedback and improvement. Facilitating system-wide visibility into the activities of critical user accounts is a partial way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only covers one element of the system or network security, and it does not cover the other elements, such as the security threats and vulnerabilities, the security incidents and impacts, and the security response and remediation. Logging both scheduled and unscheduled system changes is a specific way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only focuses on one type of the security events and activities, and it does not focus on the other types, such as the security alerts and notifications, the security analysis and correlation, and the security reporting and documentation.

 Insufficient Service Level Agreement (SLA) would be the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit. A Web hosting solution is a service that provides the infrastructure, resources, and tools for hosting and maintaining a website or a web application on the internet. A Web hosting solution can offer various benefits, such as:

Improving the availability and accessibility of the website or web application by ensuring that it is online and reachable at all times

Enhancing the performance and scalability of the website or web application by optimizing the speed, load, and capacity of the web server

Increasing the security and reliability of the website or web application by providing the backup, recovery, and protection of the web data and content

Reducing the cost and complexity of the website or web application by outsourcing the web hosting and management to a third-party provider

A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is a contract or an agreement that defines the expectations, responsibilities, and obligations of the parties involved in a service, such as the service provider and the service consumer. An SLA can include various components, such as:

Service description: a detailed explanation of the scope, purpose, and features of the service

Service level objectives: a set of measurable and quantifiable goals or targets for the service quality, performance, and availability

Service level indicators: a set of metrics or parameters that are used to monitor and evaluate the service level objectives

Service level reporting: a process that involves collecting, analyzing, and communicating the service level indicators and objectives

Service level penalties: a set of consequences or actions that are applied when the service level objectives are not met or violated

Insufficient SLA would be the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it could mean that the SLA does not include or specify the appropriate service level indicators or objectives for the Web hosting solution, or that the SLA does not provide or enforce the adequate service level reporting or penalties for the Web hosting solution. This could affect the ability of the organization to measure and assess the Web hosting solution quality, performance, and availability, and to identify and address any issues or risks in the Web hosting solution.

The other options are not the most probable causes for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, but rather the factors that could affect or improve the Web hosting solution in other ways. Absence of a Business Intelligence (BI) solution is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to analyze and utilize the data and information from the Web hosting solution, such as the web traffic, behavior, or conversion. A BI solution is a system that involves the collection, integration, processing, and presentation of the data and information from various sources, such as the Web hosting solution, to support the decision making and planning of the organization. However, absence of a BI solution is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the analysis or usage of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution. Inadequate cost modeling is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to estimate and optimize the cost and value of the Web hosting solution, such as the web hosting fees, maintenance costs, or return on investment. A cost model is a tool or a method that helps the organization to calculate and compare the cost and value of the Web hosting solution, and to identify and implement the best or most efficient Web hosting solution. However, inadequate cost modeling is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the estimation or optimization of the cost and value of the Web hosting solution. Improper deployment of the Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to design and develop the Web hosting solution, such as the web services, components, or interfaces. A SOA is a software architecture that involves the modularization, standardization, and integration of the software components or services that provide the functionality or logic of the Web hosting solution. A SOA can offer various benefits, such as:

Improving the flexibility and scalability of the Web hosting solution by allowing the addition, modification, or removal of the software components or services without affecting the whole Web hosting solution

Enhancing the interoperability and compatibility of the Web hosting solution by enabling the communication and interaction of the software components or services across different platforms and technologies

Increasing the reusability and maintainability of the Web hosting solution by reducing the duplication and complexity of the software components or services

However, improper deployment of the SOA is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the design or development of the Web hosting solution.

The residual risk is 25% in this scenario. Residual risk is the portion of risk that remains after security measures have been applied to mitigate the risk. Residual risk can be calculated by subtracting the risk reduction from the total risk. In this scenario, the total risk is 100%, and the risk reduction is 75%. The risk reduction is 75% because the control stops 50% of attacks, and reduces the impact of an attack by 50%. Therefore, the residual risk is 100% - 75% = 25%. Alternatively, the residual risk can be calculated by multiplying the probability and the impact of the remaining risk. In this scenario, the probability of an attack is 50%, and the impact of an attack is 50%. Therefore, the residual risk is 50% x 50% = 25%. 50%, 75%, and 100% are not the correct answers to the question, as they do not reflect the correct calculation of the residual risk. 

The most effective method to mitigate future infections caused by connecting a Universal Serial Bus (USB) storage device is to implement centralized technical control of USB port connections. USB port connections are the physical interfaces that allow USB devices, such as flash drives, keyboards, or mice, to connect to a computer or a network. USB port connections can pose a security risk, as they can be used to introduce or spread malware, to steal or leak data, or to bypass other security controls. Centralized technical control of USB port connections is a technique that uses a centralized system or a policy to monitor, restrict, or disable the USB port connections on the computers or the network. Centralized technical control of USB port connections can prevent or limit future infections caused by connecting a USB storage device, as it can block or allow the USB devices based on various criteria, such as the device type, the device ID, the user ID, the time, or the location. Centralized technical control of USB port connections can also provide some benefits for web security, such as enhancing the visibility and the auditability of the USB activities, enforcing the compliance and the consistency of the USB policies, and reducing the reliance and the burden on the end users. Develop a written organizational policy prohibiting unauthorized USB devices, train users on the dangers of transferring data in USB devices, and encrypt removable USB devices containing data at rest are not the most effective methods to mitigate future infections caused by connecting a USB storage device, although they may be related or useful techniques. Develop a written organizational policy prohibiting unauthorized USB devices is a technique that uses a formal document to define and communicate the rules and the expectations regarding the usage of USB devices on the computers or the network. Develop a written organizational policy prohibiting unauthorized USB devices can provide some benefits for web security, such as raising the awareness and the responsibility of the parties, establishing the standards and the guidelines for the USB activities, and providing the basis and the justification for the enforcement and the sanctions of the USB policies. However, develop a written organizational policy prohibiting unauthorized USB devices is not sufficient to prevent or limit future infections caused by connecting a USB storage device, as the policy may not be effectively implemented, communicated, or followed by the parties, and it may not be able to address the dynamic and the complex nature of the USB threats. Train users on the dangers of transferring data in USB devices is a technique that uses education and awareness programs to inform and instruct the users about the risks and the best practices of using USB devices on the computers or the network. Train users on the dangers of transferring data in USB devices can provide some benefits for web security, such as improving the knowledge and the skills of the users, changing the attitudes and the behaviors of the users, and empowering the users to make informed and secure decisions regarding the USB activities. 

Limiting access to predefined queries is the control that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees. A query is a request for information from a database, which can be expressed in a structured query language (SQL) or a graphical user interface (GUI). A query can specify the criteria, conditions, and operations for selecting, filtering, sorting, grouping, and aggregating the data from the database. A predefined query is a query that has been created and stored in advance by the database administrator or the data owner, and that can be executed by the authorized users without any modification. A predefined query can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the performance and efficiency of the database by reducing the processing time and resources required for executing the queries

Enhancing the security and confidentiality of the database by restricting the access and exposure of the sensitive data to the authorized users and purposes

Increasing the accuracy and reliability of the database by preventing the errors or inconsistencies that might occur due to the user input or modification of the queries

Reducing the cost and complexity of the database by simplifying the query design and management

Limiting access to predefined queries is the control that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees, because it can ensure that the users can only access the data that is relevant and necessary for their tasks, and that they cannot access or manipulate the data that is beyond their scope or authority. For example, a predefined query can be created and stored that calculates and displays the average salary of groups of employees based on certain criteria, such as department, position, or experience. The users who need to view this information can execute this predefined query, but they cannot modify it or create their own queries that might reveal the individual employee’s salary or other sensitive data.

The other options are not the controls that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees, but rather controls that have other purposes or effects. Segregating the database into a small number of partitions each with a separate security level is a control that would improve the performance and security of the database by dividing it into smaller and manageable segments that can be accessed and processed independently and concurrently. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they have access to the partition that contains the salary data, and if they can create or modify their own queries. Implementing Role Based Access Control (RBAC) is a control that would enforce the access rights and permissions of the users based on their roles or functions within the organization, rather than their identities or attributes. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if their roles or functions require them to access the salary data, and if they can create or modify their own queries. Reducing the number of people who have access to the system for statistical purposes is a control that would reduce the risk and impact of unauthorized access or disclosure of the sensitive data by minimizing the exposure and distribution of the data. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they are among the people who have access to the system, and if they can create or modify their own queries.

Derived credential is the best description of an access control method utilizing cryptographic keys derived from a smart card private key that is embedded within mobile devices. A smart card is a device that contains a microchip that stores a private key and a digital certificate that are used for authentication and encryption. A smart card is typically inserted into a reader that is attached to a computer or a terminal, and the user enters a personal identification number (PIN) to unlock the smart card and access the private key and the certificate. A smart card can provide a high level of security and convenience for the user, as it implements a two-factor authentication method that combines something the user has (the smart card) and something the user knows (the PIN).

However, a smart card may not be compatible or convenient for mobile devices, such as smartphones or tablets, that do not have a smart card reader or a USB port. To address this issue, a derived credential is a solution that allows the user to use a mobile device as an alternative to a smart card for authentication and encryption. A derived credential is a cryptographic key and a certificate that are derived from the smart card private key and certificate, and that are stored on the mobile device. A derived credential works as follows:

The user inserts the smart card into a reader that is connected to a computer or a terminal, and enters the PIN to unlock the smart card

The user connects the mobile device to the computer or the terminal via a cable, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi

The user initiates a request to generate a derived credential on the mobile device

The computer or the terminal verifies the smart card certificate with a trusted CA, and generates a derived credential that contains a cryptographic key and a certificate that are derived from the smart card private key and certificate

The computer or the terminal transfers the derived credential to the mobile device, and stores it in a secure element or a trusted platform module on the device

The user disconnects the mobile device from the computer or the terminal, and removes the smart card from the reader

The user can use the derived credential on the mobile device to authenticate and encrypt the communication with other parties, without requiring the smart card or the PIN

A derived credential can provide a secure and convenient way to use a mobile device as an alternative to a smart card for authentication and encryption, as it implements a two-factor authentication method that combines something the user has (the mobile device) and something the user is (the biometric feature). A derived credential can also comply with the standards and policies for the use of smart cards, such as the Personal Identity Verification (PIV) or the Common Access Card (CAC) programs.

The other options are not the best descriptions of an access control method utilizing cryptographic keys derived from a smart card private key that is embedded within mobile devices, but rather descriptions of other methods or concepts. Temporary security credential is a method that involves issuing a short-lived credential, such as a token or a password, that can be used for a limited time or a specific purpose. Temporary security credential can provide a flexible and dynamic way to grant access to the users or entities, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key. Mobile device credentialing service is a concept that involves providing a service that can issue, manage, or revoke credentials for mobile devices, such as certificates, tokens, or passwords. Mobile device credentialing service can provide a centralized and standardized way to control the access of mobile devices, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key. Digest authentication is a method that involves using a hash function, such as MD5, to generate a digest or a fingerprint of the user’s credentials, such as the username and password, and sending it to the server for verification. Digest authentication can provide a more secure way to authenticate the user than the basic authentication, which sends the credentials in plain text, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key.

Applying the principle of least privilege is the best approach for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance. The principle of least privilege is a security concept that states that every user or process should have the minimum amount of access rights and permissions that are necessary to perform their tasks or functions, and nothing more. The principle of least privilege can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and confidentiality of the information by limiting the access and exposure of the sensitive data to the authorized users and purposes

Reducing the risk and impact of unauthorized access or disclosure of the information by minimizing the attack surface and the potential damage

Increasing the accountability and auditability of the information by tracking and logging the access and usage of the sensitive data

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system by reducing the complexity and overhead of the access control mechanisms

Applying the principle of least privilege is the best approach for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance, because it can ensure that the employees can only access the information that is relevant and necessary for their tasks or functions, and that they cannot access or manipulate the information that is beyond their scope or authority. For example, if the highly sensitive information is related to a specific project or department, then only the employees who are involved in that project or department should have access to that information, and not the employees who have the same level of security clearance but are not involved in that project or department.

The other options are not the best approaches for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance, but rather approaches that have other purposes or effects. Audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur within a system or a network, such as the access and usage of the sensitive data. Audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the system or network behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents. However, audit logs cannot prevent or reduce the access or disclosure of the sensitive information, but rather provide evidence or clues after the fact. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) is a method that enforces the access rights and permissions of the users based on their roles or functions within the organization, rather than their identities or attributes. RBAC can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security by defining and assigning the roles and permissions according to the organizational structure and policies. However, RBAC cannot control the access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance and the same role or function within the organization, but rather rely on other criteria or mechanisms. Two-factor authentication is a technique that verifies the identity of the users by requiring them to provide two pieces of evidence or factors, such as something they know (e.g., password, PIN), something they have (e.g., token, smart card), or something they are (e.g., fingerprint, face). Two-factor authentication can provide a strong and preventive layer of security by preventing unauthorized access to the system or network by the users who do not have both factors. However, two-factor authentication cannot control the access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance and the same two factors, but rather rely on other criteria or mechanisms.

A SYN flood attack is a type of denial-of-service attack that exploits the TCP three-way handshake process. The attacker sends a large number of SYN packets to the target server, often with spoofed IP addresses, and does not complete the handshake by sending the final ACK packet. This causes the server to allocate resources for half-open connections, which eventually consume all the available ports and prevent legitimate traffic from reaching the server

The main reason that system re-certification and re-accreditation are needed is to verify that the security protection of the system remains acceptable to the organizational security policy, especially after significant changes or updates to the system. Re-certification is the process of reviewing and testing the security controls of the system to ensure that they are still effective and compliant with the security policy. Re-accreditation is the process of authorizing the system to operate based on the results of the re-certification. The other options are not the main reason for system re-certification and re-accreditation, as they either do not relate to the security protection of the system (A and D), or do not involve re-certification and re-accreditation (B). References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 10, page 633; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 10, page 695.

WebSockets is an HTML5 option that presents a security challenge for network data leakage prevention and/or monitoring, as it enables a bidirectional, full-duplex communication channel between a web browser and a server2. WebSockets can bypass the traditional HTTP request-response model and establish a persistent connection that can exchange data in real time. This can pose a risk of data leakage, as the data transmitted over WebSockets may not be inspected or filtered by the network security devices, such as firewalls, proxies, or data loss prevention systems3. Cross Origin Resource Sharing (CORS), Document Object Model (DOM) trees, and Web Interface Definition Language (IDL) are not HTML5 options that present a security challenge for network data leakage prevention and/or monitoring, as they are not related to the communication channel between the web browser and the server. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 4, page 973: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 4, page 211.

 The best way to ensure document confidentiality in the repository is to encrypt the contents of the repository and document any exceptions to that requirement. Encryption is the process of transforming the information into an unreadable form using a secret key or algorithm. Encryption protects the confidentiality of the information by preventing unauthorized access or disclosure, even if the repository is compromised or breached. Encryption also provides integrity and authenticity of the information by ensuring that it has not been modified or tampered with. Documenting any exceptions to the encryption requirement is also important to justify the reasons and risks for not encrypting certain information, and to apply alternative controls if needed93. References: 9: What Is a Document Repository and What Are the Benefits of Using One103: What is a document repository and why you should have one11

 The first step to take when implementing a patch management program is to create a system inventory. A system inventory is a comprehensive list of all the hardware and software assets in the organization, such as servers, workstations, laptops, mobile devices, routers, switches, firewalls, operating systems, applications, firmware, etc. A system inventory helps to identify the scope and complexity of the patch management program, as well as the current patch status and vulnerabilities of each asset. A system inventory also helps to prioritize and schedule patch deployment, monitor patch compliance, and report patch performance56. References: 5: Patch Management Best Practices76: Patch Management Process8

The first step in building a firewall is to perform a risk analysis to identify the assets and resources that need to be protected, the threats and vulnerabilities that exist, and the potential impact of a security breach. Based on the risk analysis, the firewall design can be tailored to meet the specific security requirements and objectives of the organization

Identifying the number of security flaws within the system is the best assessment metric to understand a system’s vulnerability to potential exploits. A security flaw is a weakness or a defect in the system’s design, implementation, or operation that could be exploited by an attacker to compromise the system’s confidentiality, integrity, or availability2. By identifying the number of security flaws within the system, the assessor can measure the system’s vulnerability, which is the degree to which the system is susceptible or exposed to attacks3. Determining the probability that the system functions safely during any time period, quantifying the system’s available services, and measuring the system’s integrity in the presence of failure are not assessment metrics that directly relate to the system’s vulnerability to potential exploits, as they are more concerned with the system’s reliability, availability, and resilience. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 8, page 2173: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 8, page 461.

The best way to prevent security flaws occurring in outsourced software development is to establish contractual requirements for code quality that specify the security standards, guidelines, and best practices that the outsourced developers must follow. This way, the organization can ensure that the outsourced software meets the expected level of security and quality, and that any security flaws are detected and remediated before delivery. The other options are not as effective as contractual requirements for code quality, as they either do not address the security aspects of the software development (B and D), or do not prevent the security flaws from occurring in the first place ©. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 472; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, page 572.

Identification of data location is a must-have clause in a contract to support electronic discovery of data stored in a cloud environment. Electronic discovery, or e-discovery, is the process of identifying, preserving, collecting, processing, reviewing, and producing electronically stored information (ESI) that is relevant to a legal case or investigation1. In a cloud environment, where data may be stored in multiple locations, jurisdictions, or servers, it is essential to have a clear and contractual agreement on how and where the data can be accessed, retrieved, and produced for e-discovery purposes. Identification of data location can help ensure the availability, integrity, and admissibility of the data as evidence. Integration with organizational directory services for authentication, tokenization of data, and accommodation of hybrid deployment models are not mandatory clauses for e-discovery support, as they are more related to the security, privacy, and flexibility of the cloud service, rather than the legal aspects of data discovery. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 10, page 647.

An attacker is most likely to target programs that write to system resources to gain privileged access to a system. System resources are the hardware and software components that are essential for the operation and functionality of a system, such as the CPU, memory, disk, network, operating system, drivers, libraries, etc. Programs that write to system resources may have higher privileges or permissions than programs that write to user directories or log files. An attacker may exploit vulnerabilities or flaws in these programs to execute malicious code, escalate privileges, or bypass security controls. Programs that write to user directories or log files are less likely to be targeted by an attacker, as they may have lower privileges or permissions, and may not contain sensitive information or system calls. User directories are the folders or locations where users store their personal files or data. Log files are the records of events or activities that occur in a system or application. 

 A dictionary attack is a type of brute-force attack that attempts to guess a user’s password by trying a large number of possible words or phrases, often derived from a dictionary or a list of commonly used passwords. A dictionary attack can be detected by an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) if it generates a high number of failed login attempts per minute, as well as a variety of passwords for the same user. A sniffer can capture the network traffic and reveal the passwords being tried by the attacker34. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 6574: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 6, page 197.

Including a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) in the design of a computer system is an example of a technique to establish a secure initial state. A TPM is a hardware device that provides cryptographic functions and secure storage for keys, certificates, passwords, and other sensitive data. A TPM can also measure and verify the integrity of the system components, such as the BIOS, boot loader, operating system, and applications, before they are executed. This process is known as trusted boot or measured boot, and it ensures that the system is in a known and trusted state before allowing access to the user or network. A TPM can also enable features such as disk encryption, remote attestation, and platform authentication12. References: 1: What is a Trusted Platform Module (TPM)?32: Trusted Platform Module (TPM) Fundamentals4

Alternate encoding such as hexadecimal representations is most often observed in cross site scripting (XSS) attacks. XSS is a type of web application attack that involves injecting malicious code or scripts into a web page or a web application, usually through user input fields or parameters. The malicious code or script is then executed by the victim’s browser, and can perform various actions, such as stealing cookies, session tokens, or credentials, redirecting to malicious sites, or displaying fake content. Alternate encoding is a technique that is used by attackers to bypass input validation or filtering mechanisms, and to conceal or obfuscate the malicious code or script. Alternate encoding can use hexadecimal, decimal, octal, binary, or Unicode representations of the characters or symbols in the code or script . References: : What is Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)? : XSS Filter Evasion Cheat Sheet

The most appropriate source for test data is production data that has been sanitized before loading into a test environment. Sanitization is the process of removing or modifying sensitive or confidential information from the data, such as personal identifiers, financial records, or trade secrets. Sanitized data preserves the characteristics and structure of the original data, but reduces the risk of exposing or compromising the data in the test environment. Production data that is secured and maintained only in the production environment is not a suitable source for test data, as it may not be accessible or available for testing purposes. Test data that has no similarities to production data is not a realistic or reliable source for test data, as it may not reflect the actual scenarios or conditions that the system will encounter in the production environment. Test data that is mirrored and kept up-to-date with production data is not a secure or ethical source for test data, as it may violate the privacy or confidentiality of the data owners or subjects, and expose the data to unauthorized access or modification in the test environment. References: 4: Data Sanitization: What It Is and How to Implement It55: Test Data Management: Best Practices and Methodologies

A trojan horse is a type of malware that masquerades as a legitimate program or file, but performs malicious actions in the background. A trojan horse may open unauthorized ports on the infected system, allowing remote access or communication by the attacker or other malware12. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 6432: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 6, page 189.

 Social engineering is the method of information gathering that the attacker has used while impersonating an ISO and obtaining information from company employees about their User IDs and passwords. Social engineering is a technique of manipulating or deceiving people into revealing confidential or sensitive information, or performing actions that compromise the security of an organization or a system1. Social engineering can exploit the human factors, such as trust, curiosity, fear, or greed, to influence the behavior or judgment of the target. Social engineering can take various forms, such as phishing, baiting, pretexting, or impersonation. Trusted path, malicious logic, and passive misuse are not methods of information gathering that the attacker has used, as they are related to different aspects of security or attack. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 19.

A disadvantage of an application filtering firewall is that it can lead to performance degradation due to the rules applied. An application filtering firewall is a type of firewall that inspects the content and context of the data packets at the application layer of the OSI model. It can block or allow traffic based on the application protocol, the source and destination addresses, the user identity, the time of day, and other criteria. An application filtering firewall provides a high level of security and control, but it also requires more processing power and memory than other types of firewalls. This can result in slower network performance and increased latency56. References: 5: Application Layer Filtering (ALF): What is it and How does it Fit into your Security Plan?76: Different types of Firewalls: Their advantages and disadvantages

A privileged identity lifecycle management is a process of managing the access rights and activities of users who have elevated permissions to access sensitive data or resources in an organization2. An essential element of a privileged identity lifecycle management is to regularly perform account re-validation and approval, which means verifying that the privileged users still need their access rights and have them approved by the appropriate authority. This can help prevent unauthorized or excessive access, reduce the risk of insider threats, and ensure compliance with policies and regulations. Account provisioning based on multi-factor authentication, frequently review performed activities and request justification, and account information to be provided by supervisor or line manager are also important aspects of a privileged identity lifecycle management, but they are not as essential as account re-validation and approval. References: 2: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 5, page 283.

Program change control is the maintenance activity that is responsible for defining, implementing, and testing updates to application systems. Program change control ensures that the changes are authorized, documented, reviewed, tested, and approved before being deployed to the production environment. Program change control also maintains a record of the changes and their impact on the system . References: : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 823. : CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 8, page 263.

A vulnerability test is a type of security assessment that identifies and analyzes the security weaknesses in an information system. The purpose of a vulnerability test is to evaluate the effectiveness of security controls and to provide recommendations for improvement. A vulnerability test does not exploit the security weaknesses or measure the system performance. A vulnerability test is also different from a penetration test, which is a type of security assessment that attempts to exploit the security weaknesses and gain unauthorized access to the system. A vulnerability test is also not related to disaster recovery planning, which is a process of preparing for and recovering from a disruptive event that affects the availability of an information system. 

The EU-US Safe Harbor Privacy Policy is a framework that was established in 2000 to enable the transfer of personal data from the European Union to the United States, while ensuring adequate protection of the data subject’s privacy rights3. The framework was invalidated by the European Court of Justice in 2015, and replaced by the EU-US Privacy Shield in 20164. However, the Safe Harbor Privacy Policy still serves as a reference for the principles and requirements of data protection across the Atlantic. One of the elements that a compliant Safe Harbor Privacy Policy must contain is an explanation of who can be contacted at the organization collecting the information if corrections are required by the data subject. This is part of the principle of access, which states that individuals must have access to their personal information and be able to correct, amend, or delete it where it is inaccurate. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 2954: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 10, page 284. : Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 5, page 293.

 Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR) are devices that detect motion by sensing the infrared radiation emitted by objects. In a non-climate controlled environment, the background temperature may vary due to weather, seasons, or other factors. This may affect the sensitivity and accuracy of the PIR sensors, as they may not be able to distinguish between the object and the background. Therefore, the PIR sensors should have a feature that automatically adjusts the threshold or baseline of the background temperature to avoid false alarms or missed detections.

A and B are incorrect because they are not feasible or desirable solutions. Reducing or increasing the detected object temperature in relation to the background temperature would require altering the physical properties of the object or the sensor, which may not be possible or practical. Moreover, this may also affect the performance or functionality of the object or the sensor.

D is incorrect because it is not realistic or reliable. Detecting objects of a specific temperature independent of the background temperature would require the PIR sensors to have a very high resolution and precision, which may not be available or affordable. Moreover, this may also limit the range and scope of the PIR sensors, as they may not be able to detect objects that have different temperatures or emit different amounts of infrared radiation.

An Electronic Access Control (EAC) token is best known for its ability to overcome the problems of key assignments in a physical security system. An EAC token is a device that can be used to authenticate a user or grant access to a physical area or resource, such as a door, a gate, or a locker2. An EAC token can be a smart card, a magnetic stripe card, a proximity card, a key fob, or a biometric device. An EAC token can overcome the problems of key assignments, which are the issues or challenges of managing and distributing physical keys to authorized users, such as lost, stolen, duplicated, or unreturned keys. An EAC token can provide more security, convenience, and flexibility than a physical key, as it can be easily activated, deactivated, or replaced, and it can also store additional information or perform other functions. Monitoring the opening of windows and doors, triggering alarms when intruders are detected, and locking down a facility during an emergency are not the abilities that an EAC token is best known for, as they are more related to the functions of other components of a physical security system, such as sensors, alarms, or locks. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 9, page 253.

Logical access control programs are most effective when they are made part of the operating system. Logical access control is the process of granting or denying access to information or resources based on the identity, role, or credentials of the user or device3. Logical access control programs, such as authentication, authorization, and auditing mechanisms, can be implemented at different levels of the system, such as the application, the database, or the network. However, the most effective level is the operating system, as it provides the lowest and most comprehensive layer of access control, and can enforce the principle of least privilege and the separation of duties for all users and processes. Approval by external auditors, combination with security token technology, and maintenance by computer security officers are not factors that affect the effectiveness of logical access control programs, as they are more related to the compliance, assurance, and administration of the access control policies. References: 3: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 5, page 247. : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 353.

Network bandwidth is the least important consideration when considering transmission security, as it is more related to the performance or efficiency of the network, rather than the security or protection of the data. Network bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted or received over a network in a given time period, and it can affect the speed or quality of the communication1. However, network bandwidth does not directly impact the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of the data, which are the main goals of transmission security. Network availability, data integrity, and node locations are more important considerations when considering transmission security, as they can affect the ability to access, verify, or protect the data from unauthorized or malicious parties. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 402.

Compliance to the SLA should be reviewed at regularly scheduled meetings, such as monthly or quarterly, to ensure that the security posture is being delivered as agreed. This allows both parties to monitor the performance, identify any issues or gaps, and take corrective actions if needed. Reviewing the SLA only as part of the renewal process, prior to a planned security audit, or immediately after a security breach is not sufficient, as it may result in missing or delaying the detection and resolution of security problems. References: 1: How to measure your SLA: 5 Metrics you should be Monitoring and Reporting23: Run your security awareness program like a marketer with these campaign kits4

Diffusion is the principle that requires that changes to the plaintext affect many parts of the ciphertext. Diffusion is a property of a good encryption algorithm that aims to spread the influence of each plaintext bit over many ciphertext bits, so that a small change in the plaintext results in a large change in the ciphertext2. Diffusion can increase the security of the encryption by making it harder for an attacker to analyze the statistical patterns or correlations between the plaintext and the ciphertext. Encapsulation, obfuscation, and permutation are not principles that require that changes to the plaintext affect many parts of the ciphertext, as they are related to different aspects of encryption or security. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 3, page 65.

 An advantage of link encryption in a communications network is that it encrypts all information, including headers and routing information. Link encryption is a type of encryption that is applied at the data link layer of the OSI model, and encrypts the entire packet or frame as it travels from one node to another1. Link encryption can protect the confidentiality and integrity of the data, as well as the identity and location of the nodes. Link encryption does not make key management and distribution easier, as it requires each node to have a separate key for each link. Link encryption does not protect data from start to finish through the entire network, as it only encrypts the data while it is in transit, and decrypts it at each node. Link encryption does not improve the efficiency of the transmission, as it adds overhead and latency to the communication. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 419.

A detection control is a type of control that identifies and reports the occurrence of an unwanted event, such as a violation of a policy or a threshold. A detection control does not prevent or correct the event, but rather alerts the appropriate personnel or system to take action34. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 294: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 1, page 21.

 The combination of cryptographic algorithms that are compliant with Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) Publication 140-2 for non-legacy systems is the one that uses Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange with DH (>=2048 bits), symmetric key encryption with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) > 128 bits, and digital signature with Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) (>=2048 bits). FIPS 140-2 is a standard that specifies the security requirements and validation procedures for cryptographic modules used by federal agencies and other organizations. FIPS 140-2 defines four security levels, from level 1 to level 4, based on the security functions, mechanisms, and assurances of the cryptographic modules. FIPS 140-2 also defines the approved cryptographic algorithms and key sizes that can be used by the cryptographic modules, depending on the security level and the application. For non-legacy systems, FIPS 140-2 requires the use of approved cryptographic algorithms and key sizes that meet the minimum security strength of 112 bits, as specified by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication 800-131A. Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange with DH (>=2048 bits), symmetric key encryption with AES > 128 bits, and digital signature with DSA (>=2048 bits) are compliant with FIPS 140-2 for non-legacy systems, as they use approved cryptographic algorithms and key sizes that meet or exceed the minimum security strength of 112 bits. Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange with DH (<= 1024 bits), symmetric key encryption with AES < 128 bits, and digital signature with Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) (1024 bits) are not compliant with FIPS 140-2 for non-legacy systems, as they use cryptographic algorithms and key sizes that do not meet the minimum security strength of 112 bits. Blowfish and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) are not approved cryptographic algorithms by FIPS 140-2, and therefore are not compliant with FIPS 140-2 for non-legacy systems. References: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 268. CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, Security Architecture and Engineering, page 231.

The most secure password technique is the one-time password. A one-time password is a password that is valid for only one login session or transaction, and that is randomly generated or derived from a secret key or algorithm. A one-time password can help to enhance the security of the authentication process, by preventing the password from being reused, guessed, stolen, or intercepted by unauthorized parties. A one-time password can also help to protect against various password-based attacks, such as replay, brute force, or phishing attacks. A one-time password can be implemented by using various methods or techniques, such as hardware tokens, software tokens, SMS messages, or biometric factors. Passphrase, cognitive password, or ciphertext are not the most secure password techniques, as they are either less complex, less random, or less dynamic than the one-time password. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, page 295; CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Third Edition, Domain 5: Identity and Access Management, Question 5.10, page 221.

Threat modeling is the safeguard that should be implemented first as part of a comprehensive testing framework in order for application developers to detect potential vulnerabilities earlier during the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Threat modeling is a technique that involves identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing the potential threats that may affect a system or an application, and designing and implementing the appropriate countermeasures to mitigate or eliminate the threats. A testing framework is a set of tools, methods, and processes that are used to test and verify the quality, the functionality, and the security of a system or an application. The SDLC is a process that involves planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, and maintaining a system or an application. Threat modeling should be implemented first as part of a comprehensive testing framework, as it can help the application developers detect potential vulnerabilities earlier during the SDLC, and prevent or reduce the impact of the threats on the later stages of the development. Threat modeling can also help the application developers improve the security and the quality of the system or the application, as it can help them incorporate the security requirements and the controls into each phase of the SDLC, and to follow the secure coding standards and best practices. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, page 456. Free daily CISSP practice questions, Question 1.

If traveling abroad and a customs official demands to examine a personal computer, the most reasonable assumption is that the hard drive has been copied. The hard drive is the component of the computer that stores the data and the operating system, and it can be easily copied or cloned by using a device or a software. The customs official may copy the hard drive to inspect its contents, to search for illegal or suspicious data, or to obtain sensitive or valuable data. The hard drive may not be stolen, as the customs official may return the computer to the owner after the examination. The Internet Protocol (IP) address may not be copied, as the IP address is not a fixed or permanent attribute of the computer, but rather a dynamic and temporary identifier that is assigned by the network. The Media Access Control (MAC) address may not be stolen, as the MAC address is a unique and permanent identifier that is embedded in the network interface card (NIC) of the computer, and it cannot be easily changed or modified. 

The security architecture strategy that could be applied to secure an operating system (OS) baseline for deployment within the corporate enterprise is the principle of secure default. An OS baseline is a set of minimum security standards or configurations that are applied to an OS before it is deployed or installed on a device or a system within an organization. An OS baseline can include settings such as passwords, permissions, firewalls, patches, or encryption. An OS baseline can enhance the security, performance, and functionality of the OS, and can prevent or reduce the risk of vulnerabilities, attacks, or errors. A security architecture strategy is a method or a technique that guides the design, development, implementation, or evaluation of the security aspects or features of a system or a product, such as an OS. A security architecture strategy can improve the security, reliability, or usability of the system or the product, and can align with the security objectives or requirements of the organization. The principle of secure default is a security architecture strategy that states that the system or the product should have the most secure settings or options enabled by default, and that the user or the administrator should have the option to change or disable them if needed. The principle of secure default can be applied to secure an OS baseline for deployment within the corporate enterprise, as it can ensure that the OS has the highest level of security and protection from the start, and that the user or the administrator can customize or adjust the OS settings or options according to their preferences or needs. The principle of least privilege, the principle of separation of duty, and the principle of fail secure are not security architecture strategies that could be applied to secure an OS baseline for deployment within the corporate enterprise, as they are either not related to the default settings or options of the OS, or they have different purposes or functions than securing the OS baseline. References:

OS Baseline

Security Architecture Strategy

Principle of Secure Default

 Information Security Continuous Monitoring (ISCM) is the process of maintaining ongoing awareness of the security state and performance of an information system, and the effectiveness of the security controls implemented on the system. ISCM enables the timely detection, identification, analysis, and response to security events, incidents, or changes that may affect the security posture or risk level of the system or the organization. ISCM also supports the security authorization and accreditation processes of the system, and provides feedback and evidence for security improvement and decision making. The first step when developing an ISCM program is to define an ISCM strategy based on risk tolerance. The ISCM strategy is a high-level plan that outlines the scope, objectives, roles, responsibilities, and resources of the ISCM program. The ISCM strategy also defines the risk tolerance of the organization, which is the level of risk that the organization is willing to accept or mitigate. The risk tolerance determines the frequency, intensity, and granularity of the ISCM activities, such as data collection, analysis, reporting, and remediation. The ISCM strategy provides the foundation and direction for the ISCM program, and guides the subsequent steps of establishing the ISCM technical architecture, collecting the security-related information, and establishing the ISCM program. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Security Operations, page 535. Official (ISC)² CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 7: Security Operations, page 899.

The systems recovery phase of a disaster recovery plan is the phase that involves restoring the critical systems and operations of the organization after a disaster. The systems recovery phase is initiated by activating the organization’s hot site. A hot site is a fully equipped and operational alternative site that can be used to resume the business functions within a short time after a disaster. A hot site typically has the same hardware, software, network, and data as the original site, and can be switched to quickly and seamlessly. A hot site can ensure the continuity and availability of the organization’s systems and services during a disaster recovery situation. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Planning, page 365; [Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7: Business Continuity Planning, page 499]

 The order in which the information security professional must consider the factors when resolving ethical conflicts is public safety, duties to individuals, duties to the profession, and duties to principals. Ethics are the principles or standards that guide the conduct or behavior of a person or a group. Ethics are important for the information security profession, as the information security professionals have the responsibility to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the information and systems they manage or access, and to ensure the trust and confidence of the stakeholders and the society. The information security professionals may face ethical conflicts or dilemmas, which are situations where there are two or more choices that have different ethical implications or consequences, and no clear or easy solution. When resolving ethical conflicts, the information security professional must consider the following factors, in the order of priority:

Public safety: The information security professional must protect the health, safety, and welfare of the public, and avoid any actions or decisions that could harm or endanger the public.

Duties to individuals: The information security professional must respect the rights, privacy, and dignity of the individuals, and avoid any actions or decisions that could harm or discriminate the individuals.

Duties to the profession: The information security professional must uphold the reputation, integrity, and competence of the profession, and follow the code of ethics and standards of practice of the profession.

Duties to principals: The information security professional must act in the best interest of the principals, such as the employers, clients, or customers, and fulfill the contractual obligations and fiduciary duties to the principals. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, Section: Professional Ethics, pp. 29-30.

The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a framework that defines the best practices and standards for improving the performance, quality, and efficiency of an organization’s processes. The CMMI consists of five maturity levels that represent the degree of maturity and capability of the organization’s processes, from level 1 (lowest) to level 5 (highest). Each maturity level consists of several process areas that define the specific goals and practices for the organization’s processes. The maturity level that is identified by a managed process that is tailored from the organization’s set of standard processes according to the organization’s tailoring guidelines is level 3: Defined. A managed process is a process that is planned, executed, monitored, and controlled, and that meets the requirements and objectives of the organization and the stakeholders. A set of standard processes is a collection of processes that are established and maintained by the organization, and that can be applied to different projects or situations. A tailoring guideline is a rule or criterion that defines how the standard processes can be adapted or modified to suit the specific needs or characteristics of a project or situation. Level 3: Defined means that the organization has a well-defined and consistent process that is based on the standard processes, but that can be tailored to meet the specific requirements and objectives of each project or situation. Level 3: Defined can help to improve the effectiveness, predictability, and repeatability of the organization’s processes, as well as to enable the continuous improvement of the processes. Level 0: Incomplete, level 1: Performed, or level 2: Managed are not the maturity levels that are identified by a managed process that is tailored from the organization’s set of standard processes according to the organization’s tailoring guidelines, as they are either lower or non-existent levels of maturity and capability of the organization’s processes. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 21: Software Development Security, page 1177; CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Third Edition, Domain 8: Software Development Security, Question 8.12, page 305.

Security architecture is the design and implementation of the security controls, mechanisms, and processes that protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the information and systems of an organization. Security architecture is aligned with the business goals, objectives, and requirements of the organization, and supports the security policies, standards, and guidelines of the organization. Security architecture follows a systematic and structured approach, which consists of the following phases or steps:

Governance: Establish the security vision, mission, principles, and policies of the organization, and define the roles, responsibilities, and authorities of the security stakeholders and functions.

Strategy and program management: Develop the security strategy and objectives of the organization, and plan, coordinate, and manage the security projects and initiatives that support the security strategy and objectives.

Project delivery: Design, implement, and integrate the security solutions and components that meet the security requirements and specifications of the organization, and deliver the expected security outcomes and benefits.

Operations: Operate, monitor, and maintain the security solutions and components, and ensure their optimal performance and functionality. Also, identify, analyze, and respond to the security incidents, events, or changes that may affect the security posture or risk level of the organization. The correct order of execution for security architecture is governance, strategy and program management, project delivery, and operations, as each phase builds on the previous one and provides the input and feedback for the next one. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 219. Official (ISC)² CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 3: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 375.

 A risk of using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products is that they may not map directly to an organization’s security requirements. COTS products are software or hardware products that are ready-made and available for purchase from vendors or suppliers, without any customization or modification. COTS products can offer some advantages, such as lower cost, faster deployment, or better compatibility, but they can also pose some risks, such as:

COTS products may not map directly to an organization’s security requirements, as they are designed for general or common purposes, and they may not meet the specific or unique needs or expectations of the organization. For example, a COTS product may not support the organization’s preferred encryption algorithm, authentication method, or access control model, or it may have some security vulnerabilities or weaknesses that could compromise the organization’s security posture or compliance.

COTS products are typically more difficult to secure or update, as the organization does not have full control or visibility over the product’s source code, configuration, or functionality. The organization has to rely on the vendor or the supplier to provide security patches, fixes, or enhancements, which may not be timely, reliable, or compatible. The organization may also face some compatibility or interoperability issues with other systems or products, or some legal or contractual constraints or obligations, when using COTS products.

COTS products may introduce some hidden or unexpected costs or risks, as the organization may have to pay for additional licenses, fees, or services, or deal with some performance, quality, or usability issues, when using COTS products. The organization may also have to share or disclose some sensitive or confidential information with the vendor or the supplier, or accept some terms or conditions that may limit the organization’s rights or options, when using COTS products.

The other options are not risks of using COTS products. COTS products are typically cheaper than developing software in-house, as the organization does not have to invest in the development, testing, or maintenance of the software. Cost to implement COTS products is not difficult to predict, as the organization can estimate the cost based on the product’s price, features, or specifications. Vendors are not often hesitant to share their source code, as they may offer some level of customization or integration for their COTS products, or they may use open source or standard code for their COTS products. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 439. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 440.

The control plane is the part of a network that determines how traffic should flow based on the status of the infrastructure layer. The control plane is responsible for the configuration and management of the network devices, such as routers, switches, or firewalls, and the routing protocols, such as OSPF, BGP, or RIP, that control the path selection and forwarding of the network traffic. The control plane communicates with the data plane and the management plane to ensure the optimal and secure operation of the network. The data plane is the part of a network that carries the user or application data from the source to the destination. The data plane is responsible for the processing and forwarding of the network packets, such as IP, TCP, or UDP, that encapsulate the data. The data plane communicates with the control plane to receive the routing and forwarding instructions. The management plane is the part of a network that monitors and controls the network devices and their performance. The management plane is responsible for the administration and maintenance of the network devices, such as configuration, backup, update, or troubleshooting, and the network services, such as SNMP, SSH, or Telnet, that enable the remote access and management of the network devices. The management plane communicates with the control plane and the data plane to collect and analyze the network information and statistics. The traffic plane is not a part of a network, but rather a term that refers to the network traffic itself, or the data that flows through the network. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 252.

Spyware is a type of malicious software that covertly collects and transmits information about the user’s activities, preferences, or behavior, without the user’s knowledge or consent. Spyware is best described as data mining for advertising, as the main purpose of spyware is to gather data that can be used for targeted marketing or advertising campaigns. Spyware can also compromise the security and privacy of the user, as it can expose sensitive or personal data, consume network bandwidth, or degrade system performance. Spyware is not a form of cyber-terrorism, as it does not intend to cause physical harm, violence, or fear. Spyware is not an information gathering technique, as it is not a legitimate or ethical method of obtaining data. Spyware is not a web-based attack, as it does not exploit the vulnerabilities of the web applications or protocols, but rather the vulnerabilities of the user’s system or browser.

In an ideal encryption system, the data owner should have sole access to the decryption key, as the data owner is the person or entity that has the ultimate authority and responsibility over the data. The data owner should be able to control who can access, modify, or delete the data, and should be able to revoke or grant access rights as needed. The data owner should also be accountable for the security and compliance of the data. The system owner, the data custodian, and the system administrator are not the ideal candidates to have sole access to the decryption key, as they may not have the same level of authority, responsibility, or accountability over the data as the data owner. The system owner is the person or entity that owns the system that processes or stores the data, but may not have the same interest or knowledge of the data as the data owner. The data custodian is the person or entity that implements the security controls and procedures for the data, as defined by the data owner, but may not have the same rights or privileges to access the data as the data owner. The system administrator is the person or entity that manages the system that processes or stores the data, but may not have the same obligations or liabilities for the data as the data owner. References:

1 (Domain 1: Security and Risk Management, Objective 1.5: Understand and apply concepts of data governance)

2 (Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, Section 1.5.3: Data Governance)

 Trigger-based review and certification is the best way to prevent access privilege creep. Access privilege creep is the accumulation of unnecessary or excessive permissions by a user or an account over time, due to changes in roles, responsibilities, or assignments. Access privilege creep can pose a security risk, as it may violate the principle of least privilege and increase the attack surface or the potential for misuse. Trigger-based review and certification is a process of reviewing and validating the access privileges of a user or an account whenever a triggering event occurs, such as a role change, a project completion, a transfer, or a termination. Trigger-based review and certification can help prevent access privilege creep by ensuring that the access privileges are updated and aligned with the current needs and duties of the user or the account. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, page 206. CISSP Practice Exam – FREE 20 Questions and Answers, Question 19.

Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is the best solution for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a Federated Identity Management (FIM) system with its 20 different supplier companies. FIM is a process that allows the sharing and recognition of identities across different organizations that have a trust relationship. FIM enables the users of one organization to access the resources or services of another organization without having to create or maintain multiple accounts or credentials. FIM can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the user experience and convenience by reducing the need for multiple logins and passwords

Enhancing the security and privacy by minimizing the exposure and duplication of sensitive information

Increasing the efficiency and productivity by streamlining the authentication and authorization processes

Reducing the cost and complexity by simplifying the identity management and administration

SAML is a standard protocol that supports FIM by allowing the exchange of authentication and authorization information between different parties. SAML uses XML-based messages, called assertions, to convey the identity, attributes, and entitlements of a user to a service provider. SAML defines three roles for the parties involved in FIM:

Identity provider (IdP): the party that authenticates the user and issues the SAML assertion

Service provider (SP): the party that provides the resource or service that the user wants to access

User or principal: the party that requests access to the resource or service

SAML works as follows:

The user requests access to a resource or service from the SP

The SP redirects the user to the IdP for authentication

The IdP authenticates the user and generates a SAML assertion that contains the user’s identity, attributes, and entitlements

The IdP sends the SAML assertion to the SP

The SP validates the SAML assertion and grants or denies access to the user based on the information in the assertion

SAML is the best solution for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a FIM system with its 20 different supplier companies, because it can enable the seamless and secure access to the resources or services across the different organizations, without requiring the users to create or maintain multiple accounts or credentials. SAML can also provide interoperability and compatibility between different platforms and technologies, as it is based on a standard and open protocol.

The other options are not the best solutions for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a FIM system with its 20 different supplier companies, but rather solutions that have other limitations or drawbacks. Trusted third-party certification is a process that involves a third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), that issues and verifies digital certificates that contain the public key and identity information of a user or an entity. Trusted third-party certification can provide authentication and encryption for the communication between different parties, but it does not provide authorization or entitlement information for the access to the resources or services. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a protocol that allows the access and management of directory services, such as Active Directory, that store the identity and attribute information of users and entities. LDAP can provide a centralized and standardized way to store and retrieve identity and attribute information, but it does not provide a mechanism to exchange or federate the information across different organizations. Cross-certification is a process that involves two or more CAs that establish a trust relationship and recognize each other’s certificates. Cross-certification can extend the trust and validity of the certificates across different domains or organizations, but it does not provide a mechanism to exchange or federate the identity, attribute, or entitlement information.

The passage of time is one of the factors that affects the classification of data. Data classification is the process of assigning a level of sensitivity or criticality to data based on its value, impact, and legal requirements. Data classification helps to determine the appropriate security controls and handling procedures for the data. However, data classification is not static, but dynamic, meaning that it can change over time depending on various factors. One of these factors is the passage of time, which can affect the relevance, usefulness, or sensitivity of the data. For example, data that is classified as confidential or secret at one point in time may become obsolete, outdated, or declassified at a later point in time, and thus require a lower level of protection. Conversely, data that is classified as public or unclassified at one point in time may become more valuable, sensitive, or regulated at a later point in time, and thus require a higher level of protection. Therefore, data classification should be reviewed and updated periodically to reflect the changes in the data over time.

The other options are not factors that affect the classification of data, but rather the outcomes or components of data classification. Assigned security label is the result of data classification, which indicates the level of sensitivity or criticality of the data. Multilevel Security (MLS) architecture is a system that supports data classification, which allows different levels of access to data based on the clearance and need-to-know of the users. Minimum query size is a parameter that can be used to enforce data classification, which limits the amount of data that can be retrieved or displayed at a time.

 When assigning ownership of an asset to a department, the most important factor is to ensure individual accountability for the asset. Individual accountability means that each person who has access to or uses the asset is responsible for its protection and proper handling. Individual accountability also implies that each person who causes or contributes to a security breach or incident involving the asset can be identified and held liable. Individual accountability can be achieved by implementing security controls such as authentication, authorization, auditing, and logging.

The other options are not as important as ensuring individual accountability, as they do not directly address the security risks associated with the asset. The department should report to the business owner is a management issue, not a security issue. Ownership of the asset should be periodically reviewed is a good practice, but it does not prevent misuse or abuse of the asset. All members should be trained on their responsibilities is a preventive measure, but it does not guarantee compliance or enforcement of the responsibilities.

 When developing an information security management system (ISMS), an initial consideration is to understand the value of the information assets that the organization owns or processes. An information asset is any data, information, or knowledge that has value to the organization and supports its mission, objectives, and operations. Understanding the value of the information assets helps to determine the appropriate level of protection and investment for them, as well as the potential impact and consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing them. Understanding the value of the information assets also helps to identify the stakeholders, owners, and custodians of the information assets, and their roles and responsibilities in the ISMS.

The other options are not initial considerations, but rather subsequent or concurrent considerations when developing an ISMS. Identifying the contractual security obligations that apply to the organizations is a consideration that depends on the nature, scope, and context of the information assets, as well as the relationships and agreements with the external parties. Identifying the level of residual risk that is tolerable to management is a consideration that depends on the risk appetite and tolerance of the organization, as well as the risk assessment and analysis of the information assets. Identifying relevant legislative and regulatory compliance requirements is a consideration that depends on the legal and ethical obligations and expectations of the organization, as well as the jurisdiction and industry of the information assets.

In a data classification scheme, the data is owned by the business managers. Business managers are the persons or entities that have the authority and accountability for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. Business managers are also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. Business managers should be able to determine the impact the information has on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the information on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data.

The other options are not the data owners in a data classification scheme, but rather the other roles or functions related to data management. System security managers are the persons or entities that oversee the security of the information systems and networks that store, process, and transmit the data. They are responsible for implementing and maintaining the technical and physical security of the data, as well as monitoring and auditing the security performance and incidents. Information Technology (IT) managers are the persons or entities that manage the IT resources and services that support the business processes and functions that use the data. They are responsible for ensuring the availability, reliability, and scalability of the IT infrastructure and applications, as well as providing technical support and guidance to the users and stakeholders. End users are the persons or entities that access and use the data for their legitimate purposes and needs. They are responsible for complying with the security policies and procedures for the data, as well as reporting any security issues or violations.

Asymmetric Card Authentication Key (CAK) challenge-response is an effective control in preventing electronic cloning of RFID based access cards. RFID based access cards are contactless cards that use radio frequency identification (RFID) technology to communicate with a reader and grant access to a physical or logical resource. RFID based access cards are vulnerable to electronic cloning, which is the process of copying the data and identity of a legitimate card to a counterfeit card, and using it to impersonate the original cardholder and gain unauthorized access. Asymmetric CAK challenge-response is a cryptographic technique that prevents electronic cloning by using public key cryptography and digital signatures to verify the authenticity and integrity of the card and the reader. Asymmetric CAK challenge-response works as follows:

The card and the reader each have a pair of public and private keys, and the public keys are exchanged and stored in advance.

When the card is presented to the reader, the reader generates a random number (nonce) and sends it to the card.

The card signs the nonce with its private key and sends the signature back to the reader.

The reader verifies the signature with the card’s public key and grants access if the verification is successful.

The card also verifies the reader’s identity by requesting its signature on the nonce and checking it with the reader’s public key.

Asymmetric CAK challenge-response prevents electronic cloning because the private keys of the card and the reader are never transmitted or exposed, and the signatures are unique and non-reusable for each transaction. Therefore, a cloned card cannot produce a valid signature without knowing the private key of the original card, and a rogue reader cannot impersonate a legitimate reader without knowing its private key.

The other options are not as effective as asymmetric CAK challenge-response in preventing electronic cloning of RFID based access cards. Personal Identity Verification (PIV) is a standard for federal employees and contractors to use smart cards for physical and logical access, but it does not specify the cryptographic technique for RFID based access cards. Cardholder Unique Identifier (CHUID) authentication is a technique that uses a unique number and a digital certificate to identify the card and the cardholder, but it does not prevent replay attacks or verify the reader’s identity. Physical Access Control System (PACS) repeated attempt detection is a technique that monitors and alerts on multiple failed or suspicious attempts to access a resource, but it does not prevent the cloning of the card or the impersonation of the reader.

The best description of the responsibilities of a data owner is determining the impact the information has on the mission of the organization. A data owner is a person or entity that has the authority and accountability for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. A data owner is also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. A data owner should be able to determine the impact the information has on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the information on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data.

The other options are not the best descriptions of the responsibilities of a data owner, but rather the responsibilities of other roles or functions related to data management. Ensuring quality and validation through periodic audits for ongoing data integrity is a responsibility of a data steward, who is a person or entity that oversees the quality, consistency, and usability of the data. Maintaining fundamental data availability, including data storage and archiving is a responsibility of a data custodian, who is a person or entity that implements and maintains the technical and physical security of the data. Ensuring accessibility to appropriate users, maintaining appropriate levels of data security is a responsibility of a data controller, who is a person or entity that determines the purposes and means of processing the data.

Identity as a Service (IDaaS) is the best contract in offloading the task of account management from the IT staff. IDaaS is a cloud-based service that provides identity and access management (IAM) functions, such as user authentication, authorization, provisioning, deprovisioning, password management, single sign-on (SSO), and multifactor authentication (MFA). IDaaS can help the organization to streamline and automate the account management process, reduce the workload and costs of the IT staff, and improve the security and compliance of the user accounts. IDaaS can also support the contractors who have limited onsite time, as they can access the organization’s resources remotely and securely through the IDaaS provider.

The other options are not as effective as IDaaS in offloading the task of account management from the IT staff, as they do not provide IAM functions. Platform as a Service (PaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides a platform for developing, testing, and deploying applications, but it does not manage the user accounts for the applications. Desktop as a Service (DaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides virtual desktops for users to access applications and data, but it does not manage the user accounts for the virtual desktops. Software as a Service (SaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides software applications for users to use, but it does not manage the user accounts for the software applications.

 When implementing a data classification program, it is important to avoid too much granularity, because the process will require too many resources. Data classification is the process of assigning a level of sensitivity or criticality to data based on its value, impact, and legal requirements. Data classification helps to determine the appropriate security controls and handling procedures for the data. However, data classification is not a simple or straightforward process, as it involves many factors, such as the nature, context, and scope of the data, the stakeholders, the regulations, and the standards. If the data classification program has too many levels or categories of data, it will increase the complexity, cost, and time of the process, and reduce the efficiency and effectiveness of the data protection. Therefore, data classification should be done with a balance between granularity and simplicity, and follow the principle of proportionality, which means that the level of protection should be proportional to the level of risk.

The other options are not the main reasons to avoid too much granularity in data classification, but rather the potential challenges or benefits of data classification. It will be difficult to apply to both hardware and software is a challenge of data classification, as it requires consistent and compatible methods and tools for labeling and protecting data across different types of media and devices. It will be difficult to assign ownership to the data is a challenge of data classification, as it requires clear and accountable roles and responsibilities for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of data. The process will be perceived as having value is a benefit of data classification, as it demonstrates the commitment and awareness of the organization to protect its data assets and comply with its obligations.

The configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process is incorporated in the system acquisition and development phase of the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is a process that involves planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, operating, and maintaining a system, using various models and methodologies, such as waterfall, spiral, agile, or DevSecOps. The SDLC can be divided into several phases, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

System initiation: This phase involves defining the scope, purpose, and objectives of the system, identifying the stakeholders and their needs and expectations, and establishing the project plan and budget.

System acquisition and development: This phase involves designing the architecture and components of the system, selecting and procuring the hardware and software resources, developing and coding the system functionality and features, and integrating and testing the system modules and interfaces.

System implementation: This phase involves deploying and installing the system to the production environment, migrating and converting the data and applications from the legacy system, training and educating the users and staff on the system operation and maintenance, and evaluating and validating the system performance and effectiveness.

System operations and maintenance: This phase involves operating and monitoring the system functionality and availability, maintaining and updating the system hardware and software, resolving and troubleshooting any issues or problems, and enhancing and optimizing the system features and capabilities.

The certification and accreditation process is a process that involves assessing and verifying the security and compliance of a system, and authorizing and approving the system operation and maintenance, using various standards and frameworks, such as NIST SP 800-37 or ISO/IEC 27001. The certification and accreditation process can be divided into several tasks, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

Security categorization: This task involves determining the security level and impact of the system and its data, based on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability criteria, and applying the appropriate security controls and measures.

Security planning: This task involves defining the security objectives and requirements of the system, identifying the roles and responsibilities of the security stakeholders, and developing and documenting the security plan and policy.

Security implementation: This task involves implementing and enforcing the security controls and measures for the system, according to the security plan and policy, and ensuring the security functionality and compatibility of the system.

Security assessment: This task involves evaluating and testing the security effectiveness and compliance of the system, using various techniques and tools, such as audits, reviews, scans, or penetration tests, and identifying and reporting any security weaknesses or gaps.

Security authorization: This task involves reviewing and approving the security assessment results and recommendations, and granting or denying the authorization for the system operation and maintenance, based on the risk and impact analysis and the security objectives and requirements.

Security monitoring: This task involves monitoring and updating the security status and activities of the system, using various methods and tools, such as logs, alerts, or reports, and addressing and resolving any security issues or changes.

The configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process is incorporated in the system acquisition and development phase of the SDLC, because it can ensure that the system design and development are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system changes are controlled and documented. Configuration management and control is a process that involves establishing and maintaining the baseline and the inventory of the system components and resources, such as hardware, software, data, or documentation, and tracking and recording any modifications or updates to the system components and resources, using various techniques and tools, such as version control, change control, or configuration audits. Configuration management and control can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the quality and security of the system design and development by identifying and addressing any errors or inconsistencies

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system design and development by optimizing the use and allocation of the system components and resources

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the system design and development with the security objectives and requirements by applying and enforcing the security controls and measures

Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the system design and development by providing the evidence and information for the security assessment and authorization

The other options are not the phases of the SDLC that incorporate the configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process, but rather phases that involve other tasks of the certification and accreditation process. System operations and maintenance is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security monitoring task of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system operation and maintenance are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system security is updated and improved. System initiation is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security categorization and security planning tasks of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system scope and objectives are defined and aligned with the security objectives and requirements, and that the security plan and policy are developed and documented. System implementation is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security assessment and security authorization tasks of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system deployment and installation are evaluated and verified for the security effectiveness and compliance, and that the system operation and maintenance are authorized and approved based on the risk and impact analysis and the security objectives and requirements.

 Software security functional requirements must be defined after the business functional analysis and the data security categorization have been performed in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is a process that involves planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, operating, and maintaining a system, using various models and methodologies, such as waterfall, spiral, agile, or DevSecOps. The SDLC can be divided into several phases, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

System initiation: This phase involves defining the scope, purpose, and objectives of the system, identifying the stakeholders and their needs and expectations, and establishing the project plan and budget.

System acquisition and development: This phase involves designing the architecture and components of the system, selecting and procuring the hardware and software resources, developing and coding the system functionality and features, and integrating and testing the system modules and interfaces.

System implementation: This phase involves deploying and installing the system to the production environment, migrating and converting the data and applications from the legacy system, training and educating the users and staff on the system operation and maintenance, and evaluating and validating the system performance and effectiveness.

System operations and maintenance: This phase involves operating and monitoring the system functionality and availability, maintaining and updating the system hardware and software, resolving and troubleshooting any issues or problems, and enhancing and optimizing the system features and capabilities.

Software security functional requirements are the specific and measurable security features and capabilities that the system must provide to meet the security objectives and requirements. Software security functional requirements are derived from the business functional analysis and the data security categorization, which are two tasks that are performed in the system initiation phase of the SDLC. The business functional analysis is the process of identifying and documenting the business functions and processes that the system must support and enable, such as the inputs, outputs, workflows, and tasks. The data security categorization is the process of determining the security level and impact of the system and its data, based on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability criteria, and applying the appropriate security controls and measures. Software security functional requirements must be defined after the business functional analysis and the data security categorization have been performed, because they can ensure that the system design and development are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system security is aligned and integrated with the business functions and processes.

The other options are not the phases of the SDLC when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather phases that involve other tasks or activities related to the system design and development. After the system preliminary design has been developed and the data security categorization has been performed is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system architecture and components are designed, based on the system scope and objectives, and the data security categorization is verified and validated. After the vulnerability analysis has been performed and before the system detailed design begins is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system design and components are evaluated and tested for the security effectiveness and compliance, and the system detailed design is developed, based on the system architecture and components. After the system preliminary design has been developed and before the data security categorization begins is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system architecture and components are designed, based on the system scope and objectives, and the data security categorization is initiated and planned.

Migrating to newer, supported applications where possible is the best approach to addressing security issues in legacy web applications. Legacy web applications are web applications that are outdated, unsupported, or incompatible with the current technologies and standards. Legacy web applications may have various security issues, such as:

Vulnerabilities and bugs that are not fixed or patched by the developers or vendors

Weak or obsolete encryption and authentication mechanisms that are easily broken or bypassed by attackers

Lack of compliance with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications

Incompatibility or interoperability issues with the newer web browsers, operating systems, or platforms that are used by the users or clients

Migrating to newer, supported applications where possible is the best approach to addressing security issues in legacy web applications, because it can provide several benefits, such as:

Enhancing the security and performance of the web applications by using the latest technologies and standards that are more secure and efficient

Reducing the risk and impact of the web application attacks by eliminating or minimizing the vulnerabilities and bugs that are present in the legacy web applications

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the web applications with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications

Improving the compatibility and interoperability of the web applications with the newer web browsers, operating systems, or platforms that are used by the users or clients

The other options are not the best approaches to addressing security issues in legacy web applications, but rather approaches that can mitigate or remediate the security issues, but not eliminate or prevent them. Debugging the security issues is an approach that can mitigate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves identifying and fixing the errors or defects in the code or logic of the web applications, which may be difficult or impossible to do for the legacy web applications that are outdated or unsupported. Conducting a security assessment is an approach that can remediate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves evaluating and testing the security effectiveness and compliance of the web applications, using various techniques and tools, such as audits, reviews, scans, or penetration tests, and identifying and reporting any security weaknesses or gaps, which may not be sufficient or feasible to do for the legacy web applications that are incompatible or obsolete. Protecting the legacy application with a web application firewall is an approach that can mitigate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves deploying and configuring a web application firewall, which is a security device or software that monitors and filters the web traffic between the web applications and the users or clients, and blocks or allows the web requests or responses based on the predefined rules or policies, which may not be effective or efficient to do for the legacy web applications that have weak or outdated encryption or authentication mechanisms.

 Testing all new software in a segregated environment is the best method to prevent malware from being introduced into a production environment. Malware is any malicious software that can harm or compromise the security, availability, integrity, or confidentiality of a system or data. Malware can be introduced into a production environment through various sources, such as software downloads, updates, patches, or installations. Testing all new software in a segregated environment involves verifying and validating the functionality and security of the software before deploying it to the production environment, using a separate system or network that is isolated and protected from the production environment. Testing all new software in a segregated environment can provide several benefits, such as:

Preventing the infection or propagation of malware to the production environment

Detecting and resolving any issues or risks caused by the software

Ensuring the compatibility and interoperability of the software with the production environment

Supporting and enabling the quality assurance and improvement of the software

The other options are not the best methods to prevent malware from being introduced into a production environment, but rather methods that can reduce or mitigate the risk of malware, but not eliminate it. Purchasing software from a limited list of retailers is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves obtaining software only from trusted and reputable sources, such as official vendors or distributors, that can provide some assurance of the quality and security of the software. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still contain hidden or embedded malware, or it may be tampered with or compromised during the delivery or installation process. Verifying the hash key or certificate key of all updates is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves checking the authenticity and integrity of the software updates, patches, or installations, by comparing the hash key or certificate key of the software with the expected or published value, using cryptographic techniques and tools. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still contain malware that is not detected or altered by the hash key or certificate key, or it may be subject to a man-in-the-middle attack or a replay attack that can intercept or modify the software or the key. Not permitting programs, patches, or updates from the Internet is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves restricting or blocking the access or download of software from the Internet, which is a common and convenient source of malware, by applying and enforcing the appropriate security policies and controls, such as firewall rules, antivirus software, or web filters. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still be obtained or infected from other sources, such as removable media, email attachments, or network shares.

The primary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction is license agreements requiring release of modified code. Open source software is software that uses publicly available source code, which can be seen, modified, and distributed by anyone. Open source software has some advantages, such as being affordable and flexible, but it also has some disadvantages, such as being potentially insecure or unsupported.

One of the main disadvantages of using open source software in a commercial software construction is the license agreements that govern the use and distribution of the open source software. License agreements are legal contracts that specify the rights and obligations of the parties involved in the software, such as the original authors, the developers, and the users. License agreements can vary in terms of their terms and conditions, such as the scope, the duration, or the fees of the software.

Some of the common types of license agreements for open source software are:

Permissive licenses: license agreements that allow the developers and users to freely use, modify, and distribute the open source software, with minimal or no restrictions. Examples of permissive licenses are the MIT License, the Apache License, or the BSD License.

Copyleft licenses: license agreements that require the developers and users to share and distribute the open source software and any modifications or derivatives of it, under the same or compatible license terms and conditions. Examples of copyleft licenses are the GNU General Public License (GPL), the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), or the Mozilla Public License (MPL).

Mixed licenses: license agreements that combine the elements of permissive and copyleft licenses, and may apply different license terms and conditions to different parts or components of the open source software. Examples of mixed licenses are the Eclipse Public License (EPL), the Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL), or the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).

The primary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction is license agreements requiring release of modified code, which are usually associated with copyleft licenses. This means that if a commercial software construction uses or incorporates open source software that is licensed under a copyleft license, then it must also release its own source code and any modifications or derivatives of it, under the same or compatible copyleft license. This can pose a significant risk for the commercial software construction, as it may lose its competitive advantage, intellectual property, or revenue, by disclosing its source code and allowing others to use, modify, or distribute it.

The other options are not the primary risks with using open source software in a commercial software construction, but rather secondary or minor risks that may or may not apply to the open source software. Lack of software documentation is a secondary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the quality, usability, or maintainability of the open source software, but it does not necessarily affect the rights or obligations of the commercial software construction. Expiration of the license agreement is a minor risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the availability or continuity of the open source software, but it is unlikely to happen, as most open source software licenses are perpetual or indefinite. Costs associated with support of the software is a secondary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the reliability, security, or performance of the open source software, but it can be mitigated or avoided by choosing the open source software that has adequate or alternative support options.

The most probable security feature of Java preventing the program from operating as intended is least privilege. Least privilege is a principle that states that a subject (such as a user, a process, or a program) should only have the minimum amount of access or permissions that are necessary to perform its function or task. Least privilege can help to reduce the attack surface and the potential damage of a system or network, by limiting the exposure and impact of a subject in case of a compromise or misuse.

Java implements the principle of least privilege through its security model, which consists of several components, such as:

The Java Virtual Machine (JVM): a software layer that executes the Java bytecode and provides an abstraction from the underlying hardware and operating system. The JVM enforces the security rules and restrictions on the Java programs, such as the memory protection, the bytecode verification, and the exception handling.

The Java Security Manager: a class that defines and controls the security policy and permissions for the Java programs. The Java Security Manager can be configured and customized by the system administrator or the user, and can grant or deny the access or actions of the Java programs, such as the file I/O, the network communication, or the system properties.

The Java Security Policy: a file that specifies the security permissions for the Java programs, based on the code source and the code signer. The Java Security Policy can be defined and modified by the system administrator or the user, and can assign different levels of permissions to different Java programs, such as the trusted or the untrusted ones.

The Java Security Sandbox: a mechanism that isolates and restricts the Java programs that are downloaded or executed from untrusted sources, such as the web or the network. The Java Security Sandbox applies the default or the minimal security permissions to the untrusted Java programs, and prevents them from accessing or modifying the local resources or data, such as the files, the databases, or the registry.

In this question, the Java program is being developed to read a file from computer A and write it to computer B, using a third computer C. This means that the Java program needs to have the permissions to perform the file I/O and the network communication operations, which are considered as sensitive or risky actions by the Java security model. However, if the Java program is running on computer C with the default or the minimal security permissions, such as in the Java Security Sandbox, then it will not be able to perform these operations, and the program will not work as expected. Therefore, the most probable security feature of Java preventing the program from operating as intended is least privilege, which limits the access or permissions of the Java program based on its source, signer, or policy.

The other options are not the security features of Java preventing the program from operating as intended, but rather concepts or techniques that are related to security in general or in other contexts. Privilege escalation is a technique that allows a subject to gain higher or unauthorized access or permissions than what it is supposed to have, by exploiting a vulnerability or a flaw in a system or network. Privilege escalation can help an attacker to perform malicious actions or to access sensitive resources or data, by bypassing the security controls or restrictions. Defense in depth is a concept that states that a system or network should have multiple layers or levels of security, to provide redundancy and resilience in case of a breach or an attack. Defense in depth can help to protect a system or network from various threats and risks, by using different types of security measures and controls, such as the physical, the technical, or the administrative ones. Privilege bracketing is a technique that allows a subject to temporarily elevate or lower its access or permissions, to perform a specific function or task, and then return to its original or normal level. Privilege bracketing can help to reduce the exposure and impact of a subject, by minimizing the time and scope of its higher or lower access or permissions.

Testing for the security patch level of the environment is the web application control that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of Operating System (OS) bugs. OS bugs are errors or defects in the code or logic of the OS that can cause the OS to malfunction or behave unexpectedly. OS bugs can be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, disrupt business operations, or steal or leak sensitive data. Testing for the security patch level of the environment is the web application control that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of OS bugs, because it can provide several benefits, such as:

Detecting and resolving any vulnerabilities or issues caused by the OS bugs by applying the latest security patches or updates from the OS developers or vendors

Enhancing the security and performance of the web applications by using the most secure and efficient version of the OS that supports the web applications

Increasing the compliance and alignment of the web applications with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications

Improving the compatibility and interoperability of the web applications with the other systems or platforms that interact with the web applications

The other options are not the web application controls that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of OS bugs, but rather web application controls that can prevent or mitigate other types of web application attacks or issues. Checking arguments in function calls is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate buffer overflow attacks, which are attacks that exploit the vulnerability of the web application code that does not properly check the size or length of the input data that is passed to a function or a variable, and overwrite the adjacent memory locations with malicious code or data. Including logging functions is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate unauthorized access or modification attacks, which are attacks that exploit the lack of or weak authentication or authorization mechanisms of the web applications, and access or modify the web application data or functionality without proper permission or verification. Digitally signing each application module is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate code injection or tampering attacks, which are attacks that exploit the vulnerability of the web application code that does not properly validate or sanitize the input data that is executed or interpreted by the web application, and inject or modify the web application code with malicious code or data.

Network Behavior Analysis (NBA) tools are the best network defense against unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks in progress. NBA tools are devices or software that monitor and analyze the network traffic and activities, and detect any anomalies or deviations from the normal or expected behavior. NBA tools use various techniques, such as statistical analysis, machine learning, artificial intelligence, or heuristics, to establish a baseline of the network behavior, and to identify any outliers or indicators of compromise. NBA tools can provide several benefits, such as:

Detecting unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that are not signature-based or rule-based, and that can evade or bypass other network defenses, such as firewalls, IDS, or IPS.

Detecting advanced persistent threats (APTs) that are low and slow, and that can remain undetected for a long time, by correlating and aggregating the network events and data over time and across different sources.

Detecting insider threats or compromised hosts that are authorized and trusted, but that exhibit malicious or suspicious behavior, by profiling and classifying the network entities and their interactions.

Providing early warning and alerting of the potential or ongoing attacks, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents, by providing rich and contextual information about the network behavior and the attack vectors.

The other options are not the best network defense against unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks in progress, but rather network defenses that have other limitations or drawbacks. Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS) are devices or software that monitor and block the network traffic and activities that match the predefined signatures or rules of known attacks. IPS can provide a proactive and preventive layer of security, but they cannot detect or stop unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that do not match any signatures or rules, or that can evade or disable the IPS. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are devices or software that monitor and alert the network traffic and activities that match the predefined signatures or rules of known attacks. IDS can provide a reactive and detective layer of security, but they cannot detect or alert unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that do not match any signatures or rules, or that can evade or disable the IDS. Stateful firewalls are devices or software that filter and control the network traffic and activities based on the state and context of the network sessions, such as the source and destination IP addresses, port numbers, protocol types, and sequence numbers. Stateful firewalls can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security, but they cannot filter or control unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that use valid or spoofed network sessions, or that can exploit or bypass the firewall rules.

 Packet filtering operates at the network layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model is a conceptual framework that describes how data is transmitted and processed across different layers of a network. The OSI model consists of seven layers: application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and physical. The network layer is the third layer from the bottom of the OSI model, and it is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets between different networks or subnets. The network layer uses logical addresses, such as IP addresses, to identify the source and destination of the data packets, and it uses protocols, such as IP, ICMP, or ARP, to perform the routing and forwarding functions.

Packet filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the incoming and outgoing data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them. Packet filtering can be performed by devices, such as routers, firewalls, or proxies, that operate at the network layer of the OSI model. Packet filtering typically examines the network layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination IP addresses, the protocol type, or the fragmentation flags, and compares them with the predefined rules or policies. Packet filtering can also examine the transport layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination port numbers, the TCP flags, or the sequence numbers, and compare them with the rules or policies. Packet filtering can provide a basic level of security and performance for a network or a host, but it also has some limitations, such as the inability to inspect the payload or the content of the data packets, the vulnerability to spoofing or fragmentation attacks, or the complexity and maintenance of the rules or policies.

The other options are not techniques that operate at the network layer of the OSI model, but rather at other layers. Port services filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the transport layer header of the data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the port numbers or the services. Port services filtering operates at the transport layer of the OSI model, which is the fourth layer from the bottom. Content filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the application layer payload or the content of the data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the keywords, URLs, file types, or other criteria. Content filtering operates at the application layer of the OSI model, which is the seventh and the topmost layer. Application access control is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the application layer identity or the credentials of the users or the processes and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the roles, permissions, or other attributes. Application access control operates at the application layer of the OSI model, which is the seventh and the topmost layer.

 The purpose of an Internet Protocol (IP) spoofing attack is to convince a system that it is communicating with a known entity. IP spoofing is a technique that involves creating and sending IP packets with a forged source IP address, which is usually the IP address of a trusted or authorized host. IP spoofing can be used for various malicious purposes, such as:

Bypassing IP-based access control lists (ACLs) or firewalls that filter traffic based on the source IP address.

Launching denial-of-service (DoS) or distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks by flooding a target system with spoofed packets, or by reflecting or amplifying the traffic from intermediate systems.

Hijacking or intercepting a TCP session by predicting or guessing the sequence numbers and sending spoofed packets to the legitimate parties.

Gaining unauthorized access to a system or network by impersonating a trusted or authorized host and exploiting its privileges or credentials.

The purpose of IP spoofing is to convince a system that it is communicating with a known entity, because it allows the attacker to evade detection, avoid responsibility, and exploit trust relationships.

The other options are not the main purposes of IP spoofing, but rather the possible consequences or methods of IP spoofing. To send excessive amounts of data to a process, making it unpredictable is a possible consequence of IP spoofing, as it can cause a DoS or DDoS attack. To intercept network traffic without authorization is a possible method of IP spoofing, as it can be used to hijack or intercept a TCP session. To disguise the destination address from a target’s IP filtering devices is not a valid option, as IP spoofing involves forging the source address, not the destination address.

 Implementing logical network segmentation at the switches is the most effective layer of security the organization could have implemented to mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information. Logical network segmentation is the process of dividing a network into smaller subnetworks or segments based on criteria such as function, location, or security level. Logical network segmentation can be implemented at the switches, which are devices that operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and forward data packets based on the MAC addresses. Logical network segmentation can provide several benefits, such as:

Isolating network traffic and reducing congestion and collisions

Enhancing performance and efficiency of the network

Improving security and confidentiality of the network

Restricting the scope and impact of attacks

Enforcing access control and security policies

Facilitating monitoring and auditing of the network

Logical network segmentation can mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information by limiting the visibility and access of the sniffer to the segment where it is installed. A sniffer is a tool that captures and analyzes the data packets that are transmitted over a network. A sniffer can be used for legitimate purposes, such as troubleshooting, testing, or monitoring the network, or for malicious purposes, such as eavesdropping, stealing, or modifying the data. A sniffer can only capture the data packets that are within its broadcast domain, which is the set of devices that can communicate with each other without a router. By implementing logical network segmentation at the switches, the organization can create multiple broadcast domains and isolate the sensitive or critical data from the compromised segment. This way, the attacker can only see the data packets that belong to the same segment as the sniffer, and not the data packets that belong to other segments. This can prevent the attacker from gaining further information or accessing other resources on the network.

The other options are not the most effective layers of security the organization could have implemented to mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information, but rather layers that have other limitations or drawbacks. Implementing packet filtering on the network firewalls is not the most effective layer of security, because packet filtering only examines the network layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination IP addresses, and does not inspect the payload or the content of the data. Packet filtering can also be bypassed by using techniques such as IP spoofing or fragmentation. Installing Host Based Intrusion Detection Systems (HIDS) is not the most effective layer of security, because HIDS only monitors and detects the activities and events on a single host, and does not prevent or respond to the attacks. HIDS can also be disabled or evaded by the attacker if the host is compromised. Requiring strong authentication for administrators is not the most effective layer of security, because authentication only verifies the identity of the users or processes, and does not protect the data in transit or at rest. Authentication can also be defeated by using techniques such as phishing, keylogging, or credential theft.

WEP uses a small range Initialization Vector (IV) is the factor that contributes to the weakness of Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol. WEP is a security protocol that provides encryption and authentication for wireless networks, such as Wi-Fi. WEP uses the RC4 stream cipher to encrypt the data packets, and the CRC-32 checksum to verify the data integrity. WEP also uses a shared secret key, which is concatenated with a 24-bit Initialization Vector (IV), to generate the keystream for the RC4 encryption. WEP has several weaknesses and vulnerabilities, such as:

WEP uses a small range Initialization Vector (IV), which results in 16,777,216 (2^24) possible values. This might seem large, but it is not enough for a high-volume wireless network, where the same IV can be reused frequently, creating keystream reuse and collisions. An attacker can capture and analyze the encrypted data packets that use the same IV, and recover the keystream and the secret key, using techniques such as the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) attack, or the KoreK attack.

WEP uses a weak integrity check, which is the CRC-32 checksum. The CRC-32 checksum is a linear function that can be easily computed and manipulated by anyone who knows the keystream. An attacker can modify the encrypted data packets and the checksum, without being detected, using techniques such as the bit-flipping attack, or the chop-chop attack.

WEP uses a static and shared secret key, which is manually configured and distributed among all the wireless devices that use the same network. The secret key is not changed or refreshed automatically, unless the administrator does it manually. This means that the secret key can be exposed or compromised over time, and that all the wireless devices can be affected by a single key breach. An attacker can also exploit the weak authentication mechanism of WEP, which is based on the secret key, and gain unauthorized access to the network, using techniques such as the authentication spoofing attack, or the shared key authentication attack.

WEP has been deprecated and replaced by more secure protocols, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) or Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2), which use stronger encryption and authentication methods, such as the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), or the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

The other options are not factors that contribute to the weakness of WEP, but rather factors that are irrelevant or incorrect. WEP does not use Message Digest 5 (MD5), which is a hash function that produces a 128-bit output from a variable-length input. WEP does not use Diffie-Hellman, which is a method for generating a shared secret key between two parties. WEP does use an Initialization Vector (IV), which is a 24-bit value that is concatenated with the secret key.

Link Control Protocol (LCP) is used by the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) to determine packet formats. PPP is a data link layer protocol that provides a standard method for transporting network layer packets over point-to-point links, such as serial lines, modems, or dial-up connections. PPP supports various network layer protocols, such as IP, IPX, or AppleTalk, and it can encapsulate them in a common frame format. PPP also provides features such as authentication, compression, error detection, and multilink aggregation. LCP is a subprotocol of PPP that is responsible for establishing, configuring, maintaining, and terminating the point-to-point connection. LCP negotiates and agrees on various options and parameters for the PPP link, such as the maximum transmission unit (MTU), the authentication method, the compression method, the error detection method, and the packet format. LCP uses a series of messages, such as configure-request, configure-ack, configure-nak, configure-reject, terminate-request, terminate-ack, code-reject, protocol-reject, echo-request, echo-reply, and discard-request, to communicate and exchange information between the PPP peers.

The other options are not used by PPP to determine packet formats, but rather for other purposes. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is a tunneling protocol that allows the creation of virtual private networks (VPNs) over public networks, such as the Internet. L2TP encapsulates PPP frames in IP datagrams and sends them across the tunnel between two L2TP endpoints. L2TP does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a payload. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is an authentication protocol that is used by PPP to verify the identity of the remote peer before allowing access to the network. CHAP uses a challenge-response mechanism that involves a random number (nonce) and a hash function to prevent replay attacks. CHAP does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a transport. Packet Transfer Protocol (PTP) is not a valid option, as there is no such protocol with this name. There is a Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE), which is a protocol that encapsulates PPP frames in Ethernet frames and allows the use of PPP over Ethernet networks. PPPoE does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a payload.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall is the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system. An input validation and exception handling vulnerability is a type of vulnerability that occurs when a web-based system does not properly check, filter, or sanitize the input data that is received from the users or other sources, or does not properly handle the errors or exceptions that are generated by the system. An input validation and exception handling vulnerability can lead to various attacks, such as:

Injection attacks, such as SQL injection, command injection, or cross-site scripting (XSS), where the attacker inserts malicious code or commands into the input data that are executed by the system or the browser, resulting in data theft, data manipulation, or remote code execution.

Buffer overflow attacks, where the attacker sends more input data than the system can handle, causing the system to overwrite the adjacent memory locations, resulting in data corruption, system crash, or arbitrary code execution.

Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, where the attacker sends malformed or invalid input data that cause the system to generate excessive errors or exceptions, resulting in system overload, resource exhaustion, or system failure.

An application layer firewall is a device or software that operates at the application layer of the OSI model and inspects the application layer payload or the content of the data packets. An application layer firewall can provide various functions, such as:

Filtering the data packets based on the application layer protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, or SMTP, and the application layer attributes, such as URLs, cookies, or headers.

Blocking or allowing the data packets based on the predefined rules or policies that specify the criteria for the application layer protocols and attributes.

Logging and auditing the data packets for the application layer protocols and attributes.

Modifying or transforming the data packets for the application layer protocols and attributes.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall is the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system, because it can prevent or reduce the impact of the attacks by filtering or blocking the malicious or invalid input data that exploit the vulnerability. For example, a new rule can be added to the application layer firewall to:

Reject or drop the data packets that contain SQL statements, shell commands, or script tags in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the injection attacks.

Reject or drop the data packets that exceed a certain size or length in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the buffer overflow attacks.

Reject or drop the data packets that contain malformed or invalid syntax or characters in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the DoS attacks.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall can be done quickly and easily, without requiring any changes or patches to the web-based system, which can be time-consuming and risky, especially for a critical system. Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall can also be done remotely and centrally, without requiring any physical access or installation on the web-based system, which can be inconvenient and costly, especially for a distributed system.

The other options are not the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system, but rather options that have other limitations or drawbacks. Blocking access to the service is not the most suited option, because it can cause disruption and unavailability of the service, which can affect the business operations and customer satisfaction, especially for a critical system. Blocking access to the service can also be a temporary and incomplete solution, as it does not address the root cause of the vulnerability or prevent the attacks from occurring again. Installing an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is not the most suited option, because IDS only monitors and detects the attacks, and does not prevent or respond to them. IDS can also generate false positives or false negatives, which can affect the accuracy and reliability of the detection. IDS can also be overwhelmed or evaded by the attacks, which can affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the detection. Patching the application source code is not the most suited option, because it can take a long time and require a lot of resources and testing to identify, fix, and deploy the patch, especially for a complex and critical system. Patching the application source code can also introduce new errors or vulnerabilities, which can affect the functionality and security of the system. Patching the application source code can also be difficult or impossible, if the system is proprietary or legacy, which can affect the feasibility and compatibility of the patch.

The transport layer of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) stack is responsible for negotiating and establishing a connection with another node. The TCP/IP stack is a simplified version of the OSI model, and it consists of four layers: application, transport, internet, and link. The transport layer is the third layer of the TCP/IP stack, and it is responsible for providing reliable and efficient end-to-end data transfer between two nodes on a network. The transport layer uses protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), to segment, sequence, acknowledge, and reassemble the data packets, and to handle error detection and correction, flow control, and congestion control. The transport layer also provides connection-oriented or connectionless services, depending on the protocol used.

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means that it establishes a logical connection between two nodes before exchanging data, and it maintains the connection until the data transfer is complete. TCP uses a three-way handshake to negotiate and establish a connection with another node. The three-way handshake works as follows:

The client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server, indicating its initial sequence number and requesting a connection.

The server responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet, indicating its initial sequence number and acknowledging the client’s request.

The client responds with an ACK (acknowledge) packet, acknowledging the server’s response and completing the connection.

UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means that it does not establish or maintain a connection between two nodes, but rather sends data packets independently and without any guarantee of delivery, order, or integrity. UDP does not use a handshake or any other mechanism to negotiate and establish a connection with another node, but rather relies on the application layer to handle any connection-related issues.

Data at rest on a Storage Area Network (SAN) is located at the physical layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model is a conceptual framework that describes how data is transmitted and processed across different layers of a network. The OSI model consists of seven layers: application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and physical. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model, and it is responsible for the transmission and reception of raw bits over a physical medium, such as cables, wires, or optical fibers. The physical layer defines the physical characteristics of the medium, such as voltage, frequency, modulation, connectors, etc. The physical layer also deals with the physical topology of the network, such as bus, ring, star, mesh, etc.

A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated and block-level data storage. A SAN consists of storage devices, such as disks, tapes, or arrays, that are connected to servers or clients via a network infrastructure, such as switches, routers, or hubs. A SAN allows multiple servers or clients to share the same storage devices, and it provides high performance, availability, scalability, and security for data storage. Data at rest on a SAN is located at the physical layer of the OSI model, because it is stored as raw bits on the physical medium of the storage devices, and it is accessed by the servers or clients through the physical medium of the network infrastructure.

Operating System (OS) baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations. OS baselines are standard or reference configurations that define the desired and secure state of an OS, including the settings, parameters, patches, and updates. OS baselines can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and compliance of the OS by applying the best practices and recommendations from the vendors, authorities, or frameworks

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the OS by optimizing the resources and functions

Increasing the consistency and uniformity of the OS by reducing the variations and deviations

Facilitating the monitoring and auditing of the OS by providing a baseline for comparison and measurement

OS baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they can enable the auditors to evaluate and verify the current and actual state of the OS against the desired and secure state of the OS. OS baselines can also help the auditors to identify and report any gaps, issues, or risks in the OS configurations, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, but rather of assistance for other purposes or aspects. Change management processes are processes that ensure that any changes to the system configurations are planned, approved, implemented, and documented in a controlled and consistent manner. Change management processes can improve the security and reliability of the system configurations by preventing or reducing the errors, conflicts, or disruptions that might occur due to the changes. However, change management processes are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the procedures and controls for managing the changes. User administration procedures are procedures that define the roles, responsibilities, and activities for creating, modifying, deleting, and managing the user accounts and access rights. User administration procedures can enhance the security and accountability of the user accounts and access rights by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, user administration procedures are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the rules and tasks for administering the users. System backup documentation is documentation that records the information and details about the system backup processes, such as the backup frequency, type, location, retention, and recovery. System backup documentation can increase the availability and resilience of the system by ensuring that the system data and configurations can be restored in case of a loss or damage. However, system backup documentation is not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because it does not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the backup and recovery of the system configurations.

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure. Security testing is a process that involves evaluating and verifying the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats of a system or a network, using various methods and techniques, such as vulnerability assessment, penetration testing, code review, and compliance checks. Security testing can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

A security testing report is a document that summarizes and communicates the findings and recommendations of the security testing process to the relevant stakeholders, such as the technical and management teams. A security testing report can have various formats and structures, depending on the scope, purpose, and audience of the report. However, a formalized security testing report format and structure is one that follows a standard and consistent template, such as the one proposed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the Special Publication 800-115, Technical Guide to Information Security Testing and Assessment. A formalized security testing report format and structure can have several components, such as:

Executive summary: a brief overview of the security testing objectives, scope, methodology, results, and conclusions

Introduction: a detailed description of the security testing background, purpose, scope, assumptions, limitations, and constraints

Methodology: a detailed explanation of the security testing approach, techniques, tools, and procedures

Results: a detailed presentation of the security testing findings, such as the vulnerabilities, threats, risks, and impact levels, organized by test phases or categories

Recommendations: a detailed proposal of the security testing suggestions, such as the remediation, mitigation, or prevention strategies, prioritized by impact levels or risk ratings

Conclusion: a brief summary of the security testing outcomes, implications, and future steps

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, because it can ensure that the security testing report is clear, comprehensive, and consistent, and that it provides the relevant and useful information for the technical and management teams to make informed and effective decisions and actions regarding the system or network security.

The other options are not the primary benefits of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but rather secondary or specific benefits for different audiences or purposes. Executive audiences will understand the outcomes of testing and most appropriate next steps for corrective actions to be taken is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the executive summary component of the report, which is a brief and high-level overview of the report, rather than the entire report. Technical teams will understand the testing objectives, testing strategies applied, and business risk associated with each vulnerability is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the methodology and results components of the report, which are more technical and detailed parts of the report, rather than the entire report. Management teams will understand the testing objectives and reputational risk to the organization is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the introduction and conclusion components of the report, which are more contextual and strategic parts of the report, rather than the entire report.

Remote access audit logs could cause a Denial of Service (DoS) against an authentication system. A DoS attack is a type of attack that aims to disrupt or degrade the availability or performance of a system or a network by overwhelming it with excessive or malicious traffic or requests. An authentication system is a system that verifies the identity and credentials of the users or entities that want to access the system or network resources or services. An authentication system can use various methods or factors to authenticate the users or entities, such as passwords, tokens, certificates, biometrics, or behavioral patterns.

Remote access audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur when the users or entities access the system or network remotely, such as via the internet, VPN, or dial-up. Remote access audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the remote access behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Remote access audit logs could cause a DoS against an authentication system, because they could consume a large amount of disk space, memory, or bandwidth on the authentication system, especially if the remote access is frequent, intensive, or malicious. This could affect the performance or functionality of the authentication system, and prevent or delay the legitimate users or entities from accessing the system or network resources or services. For example, an attacker could launch a DoS attack against an authentication system by sending a large number of fake or invalid remote access requests, and generating a large amount of remote access audit logs that fill up the disk space or memory of the authentication system, and cause it to crash or slow down.

The other options are not the factors that could cause a DoS against an authentication system, but rather the factors that could improve or protect the authentication system. Encryption of audit logs is a technique that involves using a cryptographic algorithm and a key to transform the audit logs into an unreadable or unintelligible format, that can only be reversed or decrypted by authorized parties. Encryption of audit logs can enhance the security and confidentiality of the audit logs by preventing unauthorized access or disclosure of the sensitive information in the audit logs. However, encryption of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or privacy of the audit logs. No archiving of audit logs is a practice that involves not storing or transferring the audit logs to a separate or external storage device or location, such as a tape, disk, or cloud. No archiving of audit logs can reduce the security and availability of the audit logs by increasing the risk of loss or damage of the audit logs, and limiting the access or retrieval of the audit logs. However, no archiving of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the availability or preservation of the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs is a technique that involves using a hash function, such as MD5 or SHA, to generate a fixed-length and unique value, called a hash or a digest, that represents the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs can improve the security and integrity of the audit logs by verifying the authenticity or consistency of the audit logs, and detecting any modification or tampering of the audit logs. However, hashing of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or verification of the audit logs.

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data. Security process data is the data that reflects the performance, effectiveness, and compliance of the security processes, such as the security policies, standards, procedures, and guidelines. Security process data can include metrics, indicators, logs, reports, and assessments. Security process data can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system by providing the visibility and awareness of the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is the program that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of the system. Security continuous monitoring can enable the system to detect and respond to any security issues or incidents in a timely and effective manner, and to adjust and improve the security controls and processes accordingly. Security continuous monitoring can also help the system to comply with the security requirements and standards from the internal or external authorities or frameworks.

The other options are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, but rather programs that have other objectives or scopes. Quarterly access reviews are programs that involve reviewing and verifying the user accounts and access rights on a quarterly basis. Quarterly access reviews can ensure that the user accounts and access rights are valid, authorized, and up to date, and that any inactive, expired, or unauthorized accounts or rights are removed or revoked. However, quarterly access reviews are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because they are not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the user accounts and access rights. Business continuity testing is a program that involves testing and validating the business continuity plan (BCP) and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) of the system. Business continuity testing can ensure that the system can continue or resume its critical functions and operations in case of a disruption or disaster, and that the system can meet the recovery objectives and requirements. However, business continuity testing is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the continuity and recovery of the system. Annual security training is a program that involves providing and updating the security knowledge and skills of the system users and staff on an annual basis. Annual security training can increase the security awareness and competence of the system users and staff, and reduce the human errors or risks that might compromise the system security. However, annual security training is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the security education and training of the system users and staff.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation. A VM environment is a system that allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical machine, each with its own OS and applications. A VM environment can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the utilization and efficiency of the physical resources by sharing them among multiple VMs

Enhancing the security and isolation of the VMs by preventing or limiting the interference or communication between them

Increasing the flexibility and scalability of the VMs by allowing them to be created, modified, deleted, or migrated easily and quickly

A guest OS is the OS that runs on a VM, which is different from the host OS that runs on the physical machine. A guest OS can have its own security controls and mechanisms, such as access controls, encryption, authentication, and audit logs. Audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur within a system or a network, such as the access and usage of the data files. Audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the system or network behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, because they can provide the most accurate and relevant information about the user’s actions and interactions with the data files on the VM. Guest OS audit logs can also help the administrator to identify and report any unauthorized or suspicious access or disclosure of the data files, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, but rather what an administrator might review for other purposes or aspects. Host VM monitor audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur on the host VM monitor, which is the software or hardware component that manages and controls the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM monitor audit logs can provide information about the performance, status, and configuration of the VMs, but they cannot provide information about the user’s access to data files on the VMs. Guest OS access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the resources and services on the guest OS. Guest OS access controls can provide a proactive and preventive layer of security by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, guest OS access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the data files. Host VM access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM access controls can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security by defining and assigning the roles and permissions according to the organizational structure and policies. However, host VM access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the VMs.

The method that provides the most protection for user credentials is digest authentication. Digest authentication is a type of authentication that verifies the identity of a user or a device by using a cryptographic hash function to transform the user credentials, such as username and password, into a digest or a hash value, before sending them over a network, such as the internet. Digest authentication can provide more protection for user credentials than basic authentication, which sends the user credentials in plain text, or forms-based authentication, which relies on the security of the web server or the web application. Digest authentication can prevent the interception, disclosure, or modification of the user credentials by third parties, and can also prevent replay attacks by using a nonce or a random value. Self-registration is not a method of authentication, but a process of creating a user account or a profile by providing some personal information, such as name, email, or phone number. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 685. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 701.

A company whose IT services are being delivered from a Tier 4 data center should be most concerned with application failures when preparing a companywide BCP. A BCP is a document that describes how an organization will continue its critical business functions in the event of a disruption or disaster. A BCP should include a risk assessment, a business impact analysis, a recovery strategy, and a testing and maintenance plan.

A Tier 4 data center is the highest level of data center classification, according to the Uptime Institute. A Tier 4 data center has the highest level of availability, reliability, and fault tolerance, as it has multiple and independent paths for power and cooling, and redundant and backup components for all systems. A Tier 4 data center has an uptime rating of 99.995%, which means it can only experience 0.4 hours of downtime per year. Therefore, the likelihood of a power, storage, or network failure in a Tier 4 data center is very low, and the impact of such a failure would be minimal, as the data center can quickly switch to alternative sources or routes.

However, a Tier 4 data center cannot prevent or mitigate application failures, which are caused by software bugs, configuration errors, or malicious attacks. Application failures can affect the functionality, performance, or security of the IT services, and cause data loss, corruption, or breach. Therefore, the IT manager should be most concerned with application failures when preparing a BCP, and ensure that the applications are properly designed, tested, updated, and monitored.

 When an organization plans to relocate, the most important consideration from a data security perspective is to conduct a gap analysis of the new facilities against the existing security requirements. A gap analysis is a process that identifies and evaluates the differences between the current state and the desired state of a system or a process. In this case, the gap analysis would compare the security controls and measures implemented in the old and new locations, and identify any gaps or weaknesses that need to be addressed. The gap analysis would also help to determine the costs and resources needed to implement the necessary security improvements in the new facilities.

The other options are not as important as conducting a gap analysis, as they do not directly address the data security risks associated with relocation. Ensuring the fire prevention and detection systems are sufficient to protect personnel is a safety issue, not a data security issue. Reviewing the architectural plans to determine how many emergency exits are present is also a safety issue, not a data security issue. Revising the Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity (DR/BC) plan is a good practice, but it is not a preventive measure, rather a reactive one. A DR/BC plan is a document that outlines how an organization will recover from a disaster and resume its normal operations. A DR/BC plan should be updated regularly, not only when relocating.

Generating backup tapes unencrypted represents the greatest risk to data confidentiality, as it exposes the data to unauthorized access or disclosure if the tapes are lost, stolen, or intercepted. Backup tapes are often stored off-site or transported to remote locations, which increases the chances of them falling into the wrong hands. If the backup tapes are unencrypted, anyone who obtains them can read the data without any difficulty. Therefore, backup tapes should always be encrypted using strong algorithms and keys, and the keys should be protected and managed separately from the tapes.

The other options do not pose as much risk to data confidentiality as generating backup tapes unencrypted. Network redundancies are not implemented will affect the availability and reliability of the network, but not necessarily the confidentiality of the data. Security awareness training is not completed will increase the likelihood of human errors or negligence that could compromise the data, but not as directly as generating backup tapes unencrypted. Users have administrative privileges will grant users more access and control over the system and the data, but not as widely as generating backup tapes unencrypted.

When assessing an organization’s security policy according to standards established by the ISO 27001 and 27002, management responsibilities can be defined only when standards are defined. Standards are the specific rules, guidelines, or procedures that support the implementation of the security policy. Standards define the minimum level of security that must be achieved by the organization, and provide the basis for measuring compliance and performance. Standards also assign roles and responsibilities to different levels of management and staff, and specify the reporting and escalation procedures.

Management responsibilities are the duties and obligations that managers have to ensure the effective and efficient execution of the security policy and standards. Management responsibilities include providing leadership, direction, support, and resources for the security program, establishing and communicating the security objectives and expectations, ensuring compliance with the legal and regulatory requirements, monitoring and reviewing the security performance and incidents, and initiating corrective and preventive actions when needed.

Management responsibilities cannot be defined without standards, as standards provide the framework and criteria for defining what managers need to do and how they need to do it. Management responsibilities also depend on the scope and complexity of the security policy and standards, which may vary depending on the size, nature, and context of the organization. Therefore, standards must be defined before management responsibilities can be defined.

The other options are not correct, as they are not prerequisites for defining management responsibilities. Assets are the resources that need to be protected by the security policy and standards, but they do not determine the management responsibilities. Controls are the measures that are implemented to reduce the security risks and achieve the security objectives, but they do not determine the management responsibilities. Procedures are the detailed instructions that describe how to perform the security tasks and activities, but they do not determine the management responsibilities.

Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive of a laptop before traveling to a high risk area will reduce the risk of data compromise or theft in case the laptop is lost, stolen, or seized by unauthorized parties. Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive will erase all the data and applications on the laptop, leaving only the operating system and the essential software. This will minimize the exposure of sensitive or confidential information that could be accessed by malicious actors. Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive should be done using secure methods that prevent data recovery, such as overwriting, degaussing, or physical destruction.

The other options will not reduce the risk to the laptop as effectively as purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive. Examining the device for physical tampering will only detect if the laptop has been compromised after the fact, but will not prevent it from happening. Implementing more stringent baseline configurations will improve the security settings and policies of the laptop, but will not protect the data if the laptop is bypassed or breached. Changing access codes will make it harder for unauthorized users to log in to the laptop, but will not prevent them from accessing the data if they use other methods, such as booting from a removable media or removing the hard disk drive.

 An important principle of defense in depth is that achieving information security requires a balanced focus on the primary elements of people, technology, and operations. People are the users, administrators, managers, and other stakeholders who are involved in the security process. They need to be aware, trained, motivated, and accountable for their security roles and responsibilities. Technology is the hardware, software, network, and other tools that are used to implement the security controls and measures. They need to be selected, configured, updated, and monitored according to the security standards and best practices. Operations are the policies, procedures, processes, and activities that are performed to achieve the security objectives and requirements. They need to be documented, reviewed, audited, and improved continuously to ensure their effectiveness and efficiency.

The other options are not the primary elements of defense in depth, but rather the phases, functions, or outcomes of the security process. Development, testing, and deployment are the phases of the security life cycle, which describes how security is integrated into the system development process. Prevention, detection, and remediation are the functions of the security management, which describes how security is maintained and improved over time. Certification, accreditation, and monitoring are the outcomes of the security evaluation, which describes how security is assessed and verified against the criteria and standards.

 Supplying a duress alarm for personnel exposed to the public is the most cost-effective method to provide a reactive control for protecting personnel in public areas. A duress alarm is a device that allows a person to signal for help in case of an emergency, such as an attack, a robbery, or a medical condition. A duress alarm can be activated by pressing a button, pulling a cord, or speaking a code word. A duress alarm can alert security personnel, law enforcement, or other responders to the location and nature of the emergency, and initiate appropriate actions. A duress alarm is a reactive control because it responds to an incident after it has occurred, rather than preventing it from happening.

The other options are not as cost-effective as supplying a duress alarm, as they involve more expensive or complex technologies or resources. Installing mantraps at the building entrances is a preventive control that restricts the access of unauthorized persons to the facility, but it also requires more space, maintenance, and supervision. Enclosing the personnel entry area with polycarbonate plastic is a preventive control that protects the personnel from physical attacks, but it also reduces the visibility and ventilation of the area. Hiring a guard to protect the public area is a deterrent control that discourages potential attackers, but it also involves paying wages, benefits, and training costs.

Intellectual property rights are primarily concerned with the owner’s ability to realize financial gain from their creation. Intellectual property is a category of intangible assets that are the result of human creativity and innovation, such as inventions, designs, artworks, literature, music, software, etc. Intellectual property rights are the legal rights that grant the owner the exclusive control over the use, reproduction, distribution, and modification of their intellectual property. Intellectual property rights aim to protect the owner’s interests and incentives, and to reward them for their contribution to the society and economy.

The other options are not the primary concern of intellectual property rights, but rather the secondary or incidental benefits or aspects of them. The owner’s ability to maintain copyright is a means of enforcing intellectual property rights, but not the end goal of them. The right of the owner to enjoy their creation is a personal or moral right, but not a legal or economic one. The right of the owner to control the delivery method is a specific or technical aspect of intellectual property rights, but not a general or fundamental one.

A Business Impact Analysis (BIA) is a process that identifies and evaluates the potential effects of natural and man-made disasters on business operations. The BIA questionnaire is a tool that collects information from business process owners and stakeholders about the criticality, dependencies, recovery objectives, and resources of their processes. The BIA questionnaire should include questions that:

Identify the operational impacts of a business interruption, such as loss of revenue, customer satisfaction, reputation, legal obligations, etc.

Identify the financial impacts of a business interruption, such as direct and indirect costs, fines, penalties, etc.

Determine the technological dependence of the business processes, such as hardware, software, network, data, etc.

Establish the recovery time objectives (RTO) and recovery point objectives (RPO) for each business process, which indicate the maximum acceptable downtime and data loss, respectively.

The BIA questionnaire should not include questions that determine the risk of a business interruption occurring, as this is part of the risk assessment process, which is a separate activity from the BIA. The risk assessment process identifies and analyzes the threats and vulnerabilities that could cause a business interruption, and estimates the likelihood and impact of such events. The risk assessment process also evaluates the existing controls and mitigation strategies, and recommends additional measures to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.

The best way to mitigate the issue of a perpetrator compromising a network by gaining access to the network through an SSL VPN gateway by guessing a username and brute forcing the password is to use two-factor authentication mechanisms. Two-factor authentication is a method of verifying the identity of a user or device by requiring two different types of factors, such as something the user knows (e.g., password, PIN, etc.), something the user has (e.g., token, smart card, etc.), or something the user is (e.g., biometric, fingerprint, etc.). Two-factor authentication can enhance the security of the network access by making it harder for attackers to impersonate or compromise the legitimate users or devices. If the perpetrator only knows the username and password, they will not be able to access the network without the second factor, such as a token or a biometric34 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, p. 321; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 4: Communication and Network Security, p. 449.

A Security Assessment Report (SAR) is a document that summarizes the findings and recommendations of a security assessment. A SAR should include the following sections: an executive summary, a scope and methodology, a threat and risk analysis, a vulnerability analysis, a security control assessment, and remediation recommendations. Remediation recommendations are the best practices that the SAR should include, as they provide the actions that need to be taken to address the identified security gaps and risks. Data classification policy, software and hardware inventory, and names of participants are not essential sections of a SAR, although they may be included as supporting information or appendices.

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, an information librarian is responsible for managing, maintaining, and protecting the organization’s knowledge resources, including ensuring that media (such as hard drives, USBs, CDs) are free from corruption or contamination to protect the enterprise’s data integrity. An information librarian is also responsible for cataloging, indexing, and classifying the media, as well as providing access and retrieval services to the authorized users. An information librarian may also perform backup, recovery, and disposal of the media, as well as monitor and audit the usage and security of the media. An information security practitioner is not the operations role that is responsible for protecting the enterprise from corrupt or contaminated media, although they may be involved in defining and enforcing the policies and standards for the media security. An information security practitioner is a general term for a person who performs various functions and tasks related to the information security of the organization, such as planning, designing, implementing, testing, operating, or auditing the information security systems and controls. An information security practitioner may also provide guidance, advice, and training to the other roles and stakeholders on the information security matters. A computer operator is not the operations role that is responsible for protecting the enterprise from corrupt or contaminated media, although they may be involved in using and handling the media. A computer operator is a person who operates and controls the computer systems and devices of the organization, such as the servers, workstations, printers, or scanners. A computer operator may also perform tasks such as loading and unloading the media, running and monitoring the programs and applications, troubleshooting and resolving the errors and problems, and reporting and documenting the activities and incidents. A network administrator is not the operations role that is responsible for protecting the enterprise from corrupt or contaminated media, although they may be involved in configuring and connecting the media. A network administrator is a person who administers and manages the network systems and devices of the organization, such as the routers, switches, firewalls, or wireless access points. A network administrator may also perform tasks such as installing and updating the network software and hardware, setting and maintaining the network parameters and security, optimizing and troubleshooting the network performance and availability, and supporting and assisting the network users and clients. References: 1